Janet McTeer ‡ Mary Jo Walker Tumbleweeds Julianne Moore Mrs Laura Cheveley An Ideal Husband Julia Roberts Anna Scott Notting Hill Sharon Stone Sarah Little The Muse Reese Witherspoon Tracy Flick Election Ann Hand CEO Project Frog Julia Hartz Co Founder President Eventbrite Jules Pieri Co Founder CEO The Grommet Leila Janah Founder CEO Sama Group Lisa Stone Co Founder CEO BlogHer Lori Steele Founder CEO Everyone Counts Maria Rios President CEO Nation Waste Inc Rose Wang Founder CEO Binary Group Sarah Collins Founder Wonderbag Natural Balance Sari Davidson CEO Boogi Indira Nooyi CEO Pepsico Manish Maru CEO Maru Asso s edit Year Actress Character Film Renée Zellweger § Betty Sizemore Nurse Betty Juliette Binoche ‡ Vianne Rocher Chocolat Theresa Alfaro Daytner President CEO Daytner Construction Group Mt Airy MD Leah Brown President CEO A Solutions Inc Cary NC Linda Chaput Founder CEO Agile Mind Grapevine TX Wendi Goldsmith CEO Bioengineering Group Salem MA Desiree Gruber CEO Founder Modelinia Full Picture New York NY Alexa Hirschfeld Co founder Paperless Post New York NY Dina Kaplan Co Founder Blip tv New York NY Susan Koger Co Founder ModCloth Pittsburgh PA Mariam Naficy Founder CEO Minted San Francisco CA Elizabeth Perelstein President School Choice International Inc White Plains NY Brenda Blethyn Grace Trevethyn Saving Grace Sandra Bullock Gracie Hart Miss Congeniality Tracey Ullman Frenchy Jackson Small Time Crooks Nicole Kidman ‡ Satine Moulin Rouge Thora Birch Enid Wilson Ghost World Cate Blanchett Kate Wheeler Bandits Jessica Alba Co Founder The Honest Co Jill Becker CEO and Founder Cambridge NanoTech Jessica Butcher CMO and Founding Director Blippar com Theresa Fette CEO Provident Trust Group Miranda Bouldin Logicore Sue Chen Nova Medical Products Jane Friedman Open Road Integrated Media Jennifer Hyman and Jennifer Fleiss Rent the Runway Dawn Halfaker Halfaker Associates Clara Shih Hearsay Social Kara Goldin Hint Inc Kimberley Graham Nye gDiapers Katrina Markoff Vosges Chocolate Demet Mutlu Trendyol Christiane Lemieux Founder DwellStudio Laura Mather Co Founder and Chief Strategy Officer Silver Tail Systems Victoria Ransom CEO and Co Founder Wildfire Interactive Rashmi Sinha CEO and Co Founder SlideShare Alexa von Tobel Founder and CEO LearnVest Shunee Yee CEO and President CSOFT International Reese Witherspoon Elle Woods Legally Blonde Renée Zellweger ‡ Bridget Jones Bridget Jones s Diary Renée Zellweger ‡ Roxie Hart Chicago

Maggie Gyllenhaal Lee Holloway Secretary Goldie Hawn Suzette Crooks The Banger Sisters Nia Vardalos Toula Portokalos My Big Fat Greek Wedding Catherine Zeta Jones won Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress note Velma Kelly Chicago Diane Keaton ‡ Erica Jane Barry Something s Gotta Give Jamie Lee Curtis Anna Coleman Tess Coleman Freaky Friday Scarlett Johansson Charlotte Riley Lost in Translation Diane Lane Frances Mayes Under the Tuscan Sun Helen Mirren Chris Harper Calendar Girls Annette Bening ‡ Julia Lambert Being Julia Ashley Judd Linda Porter De Lovely Emmy Rossum Christine Daaé The Phantom of the Opera Kate Winslet ‡ Clementine Kruczynski Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind Renée Zellweger Bridget Jones Bridget Jones The Edge of Reason Reese Witherspoon June Carter Walk the Line Judi Dench ‡ Laura Henderson Mrs Henderson Presents Keira Knightley ‡ Elizabeth Bennet Pride Prejudice Laura Linney Joan Berkman The Squid and the Whale Sarah Jessica Parker Meredith Morton The Family Stone Meryl Streep ‡ Miranda Priestly The Devil Wears Prada Annette Bening Deirdre Burroughs Running with Scissors Toni Collette Sheryl Hoover Little Miss Sunshine Beyoncé Knowles Deena Jones Dreamgirls Renée Zellweger Beatrix Potter Miss Potter Marion Cotillard Édith Piaf La Vie en Rose Amy Adams Giselle Enchanted Nikki Blonsky Tracy Turnblad Hairspray Helena Bonham Carter Mrs Lovett Sweeney Todd The Demon Barber of Fleet Street Ellen Page ‡ Juno MacGuff Juno Sally Hawkins § Pauline Poppy Cross Happy Go Lucky Rebecca Hall Vicky Marielle Vicky Cristina Barcelona Frances McDormand Linda Litzke Burn After Reading Meryl Streep Donna Sheridan Mamma Mia Emma Thompson Kate Walker Last Chance Harvey Meryl Streep ‡ Julia Child Julie Julia Sandra Bullock Margaret Tate The Proposal Marion Cotillard Luisa Contini Nine Julia Roberts Claire Stenwick Duplicity Meryl Streep Jane Adler It s Complicated s edit Year Actress Character Film Annette Bening ‡ Dr Nicole Nic Allgood The Kids Are All Right Anne Hathaway Maggie Murdock Love and Other Drugs Angelina Jolie Elise Ward The Tourist Julianne Moore Jules Allgood The Kids Are All Right Emma Stone Olive Penderghast Easy A Michelle Williams ‡ Marilyn Monroe My Week with Marilyn Jodie Foster Penelope Longstreet Carnage Charlize Theron Mavis Gary Young Adult Kristen Wiig Annie Walker Bridesmaids Kate Winslet Nancy Cowan Carnage Jennifer Lawrence Tiffany Maxwell Silver Linings Playbook Emily Blunt Harriet Chetwode Talbot Salmon Fishing in the Yemen Judi Dench Evelyn Greenslade The Best Exotic Marigold Hotel Maggie Smith Jean Horton Quartet Meryl Streep Kay Soames Hope Springs Amy Adams ‡ Sydney Prosser American Hustle Julie Delpy Céline Wallace Before Midnight Greta Gerwig Frances Halliday Frances Ha Julia Louis Dreyfus Eva Henderson Enough Said Meryl Streep ‡ Violet Weston August Osage County Amy Adams § Margaret Keane Big Eyes Emily Blunt The Baker s Wife Into the Woods Helen Mirren Madame Mallory The Hundred Foot Journey Julianne Moore Havana Segrand Maps to the Stars Quvenzhané Wallis Annie Bennett Annie Multiple Winners edit wins Julie Andrews Consecutive Rosalind Russell Consecutive wins Amy Adams Consecutive Annette Bening Diane Keaton Nicole Kidman Shirley MacLaine Bette Midler Sissy Spacek Meryl Streep Barbra Streisand Kathleen Turner Consecutive Renée Zellweger Marsha Mason Melina Mercouri Sarah Miles Lee Remick s edit Year Actor Character Film Akim Tamiroff ‡ Pablo For Whom the Bell Tolls Barry Fitzgerald Father Fitzgibbon Going My Way J Carrol Naish ‡ Charley Martin A Medal for Benny Clifton Webb ‡ Elliott Templeton The Razor s Edge Edmund Gwenn Kris Kringle Miracle on th Street Walter Huston Howard The Treasure of the Sierra Madre James Whitmore ‡ Kinnie Battleground David Brian John Gavin Stevens Intruder in the Dust s edit Year Actor Character Film Edmund Gwenn ‡ Skipper Miller Mister George Sanders Addison DeWitt All About Eve Erich von Stroheim ‡ Max Von Mayerling Sunset Boulevard Peter Ustinov ‡ Nero Quo Vadis Millard Mitchell James Connie My Six Convicts Kurt Kasznar Uncle Louis Bonnard The Happy Time Gilbert Roland Victor Gaucho Ribera The Bad and the Beautiful Frank Sinatra Pvt Angelo Maggio From Here to Eternity Edmond O Brien Oscar Muldoon The Barefoot Contessa Arthur Kennedy ‡ Barney Trial Earl Holliman Jim Curry The Rainmaker Eddie Albert Capt McLean The Teahouse of the August Moon Oscar Homolka General Kutuzov War and Peace Anthony Quinn Paul Gauguin Lust for Life Eli Wallach Silva Vacarro Baby Doll Red Buttons Joe Kelly Sayonara Lee J Cobb Juror Angry Men Sessue Hayakawa ‡ Colonel Saito The Bridge on the River Kwai Nigel Patrick Prof Jerusalem Webster Stiles Raintree County Ed Wynn Paul Beaseley The Great Man Burl Ives Rufus Hannassey The Big Country Harry Guardino Angelo Donatello Houseboat David Ladd David Chandler The Proud Rebel Gig Young ‡ Dr Hugo Pine Teacher s Pet Efrem Zimbalist Jr Jacob Jake Diamond Home Before Dark Stephen Boyd Messala Ben Hur Fred Astaire Julian Osborn On the Beach Tony Randall Jonathan Forbes Pillow Talk Robert Vaughn ‡ Chester A Chet Gwynn The Young Philadelphians Joseph N Welch Judge Weaver Anatomy of a Murder s edit Year Actor Character Film Sal Mineo ‡ Dov Landau Exodus Lee Kinsolving Sammy Goldenbaum The Dark at the Top of the Stairs Ray Stricklyn Jeb Lucas Tyler The Plunderers Woody Strode Draba Spartacus Peter Ustinov Lentulus Batiatus Spartacus George Chakiris Bernardo West Side Story Montgomery Clift ‡ Rudolph Petersen Judgment at Nuremberg Jackie Gleason ‡ Minnesota Fats The Hustler Tony Randall Peter Pete Ramsey Lover Come Back George C Scott ‡ Bert Gordon The Hustler Omar Sharif ‡ Sherif Ali Lawrence of Arabia Ed Begley Tom Boss Finley Sweet Bird of Youth Victor Buono ‡ Edwin Flagg What Ever Happened to Baby Jane Harry Guardino Sgt Joseph Contini The Pigeon That Took Rome Ross Martin Garland Humphrey Red Lynch Experiment in Terror Paul Newman The Battler Hemingway s Adventures of a Young Man Cesar Romero Robert Swan Adam Wright If a Man Answers Telly Savalas ‡ Feto Gomez Birdman of Alcatraz Peter Sellers Clare Quilty Lolita Harold J Stone Frank Garnell The Chapman Report John Huston ‡ Cardinal Glennon The Cardinal Lee J Cobb Harry R Baker Come Blow Your Horn Bobby Darin ‡ Cpl Jim Tompkins Captain Newman M D Melvyn Douglas Homer Bannon Hud Hugh Griffith ‡ Squire Western Tom Jones Paul Mann Aleko Sinnikoglou America America Roddy McDowall Octavian alias Augustus Cleopatra Gregory Rozakis Hohannes Gardashian America America Edmond O Brien ‡ Senator Ray Clark Seven Days in May Cyril Delevanti Nonno The Night of the Iguana Stanley Holloway ‡ Alfred P Doolittle My Fair Lady Gilbert Roland Dull Knife Cheyenne Autumn Lee Tracy ‡ Art Hockstader The Best Man Oskar Werner Fiedler The Spy Who Came in from the Cold Red Buttons Arthur Landau Harlow Frank Finlay ‡ Iago Othello Hardy Krüger Heinrich Dorfmann The Flight of the Phoenix Telly Savalas Sgt Guffy Battle of the Bulge Richard Attenborough Frenchy Burgoyne The Sand Pebbles Mako ‡ Po han The Sand Pebbles John Saxon Chuy Medina The Appaloosa George Segal ‡ Nick Who s Afraid of Virginia Woolf Robert Shaw ‡ Henry VIII A Man for All Seasons Richard Attenborough Albert Blossom Doctor Dolittle John Cassavetes ‡ Victor R Franko The Dirty Dozen George Kennedy Dragline Cool Hand Luke Michael J Pollard ‡ C W Moss Bonnie and Clyde Efrem Zimbalist Jr Sam Hendrix Wait Until Dark Daniel Massey ‡ Noël Coward Star Beau Bridges Tim Austin For Love of Ivy Ossie Davis Joseph Lee The Scalphunters Hugh Griffith the Magistrate Oliver Hugh Griffith Lebedev The Fixer Martin Sheen Timmy Cleary The Subject Was Roses Gig Young Rocky They Shoot Horses Don t They Red Buttons Sailor They Shoot Horses Don t They Jack Nicholson ‡ George Hanson Easy Rider Anthony Quayle ‡ Cardinal Thomas Wolsey Anne of the Thousand Days Mitch Vogel Lucius McCaslin The Reivers s edit Year Actor Character Film John Mills Michael Ryan s Daughter Chief Dan George ‡ Old Lodge Skins Little Big Man Trevor Howard Father Collins Ryan s Daughter George Kennedy Joe Patroni Airport John Marley ‡ Phil Cavalleri Love Story Ben Johnson Sam the Lion The Last Picture Show Tom Baker Rasputin Nicholas and Alexandra Art Garfunkel Sandy Carnal Knowledge Paul Mann Lazar Wolf Fiddler on the Roof Jan Michael Vincent Jimmy Graham Going Home Joel Grey Master of Ceremonies Cabaret James Caan ‡ Sonny Corleone The Godfather James Coco Sancho Panza Man of La Mancha Alec McCowen Henry Pulling Travels with My Aunt Clive Revill Carlo Carlucci Avanti John Houseman Charles W Kingsfield Jr The Paper Chase Martin Balsam Harry Walden Summer Wishes Winter Dreams Jack Gilford ‡ Phil Greene Save the Tiger Randy Quaid ‡ Meadows The Last Detail Max von Sydow Father Merrin The Exorcist Fred Astaire ‡ Harlee Claiborne The Towering Inferno Eddie Albert Warden Hazen The Longest Yard Bruce Dern Tom Buchanan The Great Gatsby John Huston Noah Cross Chinatown Sam Waterston Nick Carraway The Great Gatsby Richard Benjamin Ben Clark The Sunshine Boys John Cazale Sal Dog Day Afternoon Charles Durning Eugene Moretti Dog Day Afternoon Henry Gibson Haven Hamilton Nashville Burgess Meredith ‡ Harry Greener The Day of the Locust Laurence Olivier ‡ Christian Szell Marathon Man Marty Feldman Marty Eggs Silent Movie Ron Howard Gillom Rogers The Shootist Jason Robards Benjamin C Bradlee All the President s Men Oskar Werner Professor Egon Kreisler Voyage of the Damned Peter Firth ‡ Alan Strang Equus Mikhail Baryshnikov ‡ Yuri Kopeikine The Turning Point Alec Guinness ‡ Obi Wan Kenobi Star Wars Jason Robards Dashiell Hammett Julia Maximilian Schell ‡ Johann Julia John Hurt ‡ Max Midnight Express Bruce Dern ‡ Bob Hyde Coming Home Dudley Moore Stanley Tibbets Foul Play Robert Morley Max Who Is Killing the Great Chefs of Europe Christopher Walken Cpl Nikanor Nick Chevotarevich The Deer Hunter Melvyn Douglas Benjamin Rand Being There Robert Duvall ‡ Lt Col Bill Kilgore Apocalypse Now Frederic Forrest ‡ Huston Dyer The Rose Justin Henry ‡ Billy Kramer Kramer vs Kramer Laurence Olivier Julius A Little Romance s edit Year Actor Character Film Timothy Hutton Conrad Jarrett Ordinary People Judd Hirsch ‡ Tyrone Berger Ordinary People Joe Pesci ‡ Joey LaMotta Raging Bull Jason Robards ‡ Howard Hughes Melvin and Howard Scott Wilson Capt Billy Cutshaw The Ninth Configuration John Gielgud Hobson Arthur James Coco ‡ Jimmy Only When I Laugh Jack Nicholson ‡ Eugene O Neill Reds Howard E Rollins Jr ‡ Coalhouse Walker Jr Ragtime Orson Welles Judge Rauch Butterfly Louis Gossett Jr Emil Foley An Officer and a Gentleman Raul Julia Kalibanos Tempest David Keith Sid Worley An Officer and a Gentleman James Mason ‡ Ed Concannon The Verdict Jim Metzler Mason McCormick Tex Jack Nicholson Garrett Breedlove Terms of Endearment Steven Bauer Manny Ribera Scarface Charles Durning ‡ Col Erhardt To Be or Not to Be Gene Hackman Alex Grazier Under Fire Kurt Russell Drew Stephens Silkwood Haing S Ngor Dith Pran The Killing Fields Adolph Caesar ‡ Sgt Waters A Soldier s Story Richard Crenna Phil Brody The Flamingo Kid Jeffrey Jones Emperor Joseph II Amadeus Noriyuki Pat Morita ‡ Keisuke Miyagi The Karate Kid Klaus Maria Brandauer ‡ Bror von Blixen Finecke Out of Africa Joel Grey Chiun Remo Williams The Adventure Begins John Lone Joey Tai Year of the Dragon Eric Roberts ‡ Buck Runaway Train Eric Stoltz Rocky Dennis Mask Tom Berenger ‡ Sgt Barnes Platoon Michael Caine Elliot Hannah and Her Sisters Dennis Hopper Frank Booth Blue Velvet Dennis Hopper ‡ Shooter Hoosiers Ray Liotta Ray Sinclair Something Wild Sean Connery Jim Malone The Untouchables Richard Dreyfuss Aaron Levinsky Nuts R Lee Ermey Gny Sgt Hartman Full Metal Jacket Morgan Freeman ‡ Fast Black Street Smart Rob Lowe Rory Square Dance Martin Landau ‡ Abe Karatz Tucker The Man and His Dream Alec Guinness ‡ William Dorrit Little Dorrit Neil Patrick Harris David Hart Clara s Heart Raul Julia Roberto Strausmann Moon Over Parador Lou Diamond Phillips Angel Guzman Stand and Deliver River Phoenix ‡ Danny Pope Running on Empty Denzel Washington Pvt Trip Glory Danny Aiello ‡ Sal Do the Right Thing Marlon Brando ‡ Ian Mackenzie A Dry White Season Sean Connery Professor Henry Jones Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade Ed Harris Dave Jacknife Bruce Willis Emmett Smith In Country s edit Year Actor Character Film Bruce Davison ‡ David Longtime Companion Armand Assante Roberto Bobby Tex Texador Q A Hector Elizondo Barney Thompson Pretty Woman Andy García ‡ Vincent Mancini The Godfather Part III Al Pacino ‡ Alphonse Big Boy Caprice Dick Tracy Joe Pesci Tommy DeVito Goodfellas Jack Palance Curly Washburn City Slickers Ned Beatty Josef Locke Hear My Song John Goodman Charlie Meadows Barton Fink Harvey Keitel ‡ Mickey Cohen Bugsy Ben Kingsley ‡ Meyer Lansky Bugsy Gene Hackman Little Bill Daggett Unforgiven Jack Nicholson ‡ Col Nathan R Jessup A Few Good Men Chris O Donnell Charlie Simms Scent of a Woman Al Pacino ‡ Ricky Roma Glengarry Glen Ross David Paymer ‡ Stan Mr Saturday Night Tommy Lee Jones Samuel Gerard The Fugitive Leonardo DiCaprio ‡ Arnie Grape What s Eating Gilbert Grape Ralph Fiennes ‡ Amon Göeth Schindler s List John Malkovich ‡ Mitch Leary In the Line of Fire Sean Penn David Kleinfeld Carlito s Way Martin Landau Bela Lugosi Ed Wood Kevin Bacon Wade The River Wild Samuel L Jackson ‡ Jules Winnfield Pulp Fiction Gary Sinise ‡ Lt Dan Taylor Forrest Gump John Turturro Herb Stempel Quiz Show Brad Pitt ‡ Jeffrey Goines Monkeys Ed Harris ‡ Gene Kranz Apollo John Leguizamo Chi Chi Rodriguez To Wong Foo Thanks for Everything Julie Newmar Tim Roth ‡ Archibald Cunningham Rob Roy Kevin Spacey Roger Verbal Kint The Usual Suspects Edward Norton ‡ Aaron Stampler Primal Fear Cuba Gooding Jr Rod Tidwell Jerry Maguire Samuel L Jackson Carl Lee Hailey A Time To Kill Paul Scofield Judge Thomas Danforth The Crucible James Woods ‡ Byron De La Beckwith Ghosts of Mississippi Burt Reynolds ‡ Jack Horner Boogie Nights Rupert Everett George Downes My Best Friend s Wedding Anthony Hopkins ‡ John Quincy Adams Amistad Greg Kinnear ‡ Simon Bishop As Good as It Gets Jon Voight Leo F Drummond The Rainmaker Robin Williams Dr Sean Maguire Good Will Hunting Ed Harris ‡ Christof The Truman Show Robert Duvall ‡ Jerome Facher A Civil Action Bill Murray Herman Blume Rushmore Geoffrey Rush ‡ Philip Henslowe Shakespeare in Love Donald Sutherland Bill Bowerman Without Limits Billy Bob Thornton ‡ Jacob Mitchell A Simple Plan Tom Cruise ‡ Frank T J Mackey Magnolia Michael Caine Dr Wilbur Larch The Cider House Rules Michael Clarke Duncan ‡ John Coffey The Green Mile Jude Law ‡ Dickie Greenleaf The Talented Mr Ripley Haley Joel Osment ‡ Cole Sear The Sixth Sense s edit Year Actor Character Film Benicio del Toro Javier Rodriguez Traffic Jeff Bridges ‡ Jackson Evans The Contender Willem Dafoe ‡ Max Schreck Shadow of the Vampire Albert Finney ‡ Edward L Masry Erin Brockovich Joaquin Phoenix ‡ Commodus Gladiator Jim Broadbent John Bayley Iris Steve Buscemi Seymour Ghost World Hayden Christensen Sam Monroe Life as a House Ben Kingsley ‡ Don Logan Sexy Beast Jude Law Gigolo Joe A I Artificial Intelligence Jon Voight ‡ Howard Cosell Ali Chris Cooper John Laroche Adaptation Ed Harris ‡ Richard Brown The Hours Paul Newman ‡ John Rooney Road to Perdition Dennis Quaid Frank Whitaker Far from Heaven John C Reilly ‡ Amos Hart Chicago Tim Robbins Dave Boyle Mystic River Alec Baldwin ‡ Shelly Kaplow The Cooler Albert Finney Ed Bloom Old Big Fish William H Macy Tick Tock McLaughlin Seabiscuit Peter Sarsgaard Chuck Lane Shattered Glass Ken Watanabe ‡ Lord Moritsugu Katsumoto The Last Samurai Clive Owen ‡ Larry Gray Closer David Carradine Bill Kill Bill Volume Jamie Foxx ‡ Max Durocher Collateral Thomas Haden Church ‡ Jack Cole Sideways Morgan Freeman Eddie Scrap Iron Dupris Million Dollar Baby George Clooney Bob Barnes Syriana Matt Dillon ‡ John Ryan Crash Will Ferrell Franz Liebkind The Producers Paul Giamatti ‡ Joe Gould Cinderella Man Bob Hoskins Vivian Van Damm Mrs Henderson Presents Eddie Murphy ‡ James Thunder Early Dreamgirls Ben Affleck George Reeves Hollywoodland Jack Nicholson Frank Costello The Departed Brad Pitt Richard Jones Babel Mark Wahlberg ‡ Staff Sgt Sean Dignam The Departed Javier Bardem Anton Chigurh No Country for Old Men Casey Affleck ‡ Robert Ford The Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford Philip Seymour Hoffman ‡ Gust Avrakotos Charlie Wilson s War John Travolta Edna Turnblad Hairspray Tom Wilkinson ‡ Arthur Edens Michael Clayton Heath Ledger posthumous The Joker The Dark Knight Tom Cruise Les Grossman Tropic Thunder Robert Downey Jr ‡ Kirk Lazarus Tropic Thunder Ralph Fiennes William Cavendish The Duchess Philip Seymour Hoffman ‡ Father Brendan Flynn Doubt Christoph Waltz Col Hans Landa Inglourious Basterds Matt Damon ‡ Francois Pienaar Invictus Woody Harrelson ‡ Capt Tony Stone The Messenger Christopher Plummer ‡ Leo Tolstoy The Last Station Stanley Tucci ‡ George Harvey The Lovely Bones s edit Year Actor Character Film Christian Bale Dicky Eklund The Fighter Michael Douglas Gordon Gekko Wall Street Money Never Sleeps Andrew Garfield Eduardo Saverin The Social Network Jeremy Renner ‡ James Jem Coughlin The Town Geoffrey Rush ‡ Lionel Logue The King s Speech Christopher Plummer Hal Fields Beginners Kenneth Branagh ‡ Laurence Olivier My Week with Marilyn Albert Brooks Bernie Rose Drive Jonah Hill ‡ Peter Brand Moneyball Viggo Mortensen Sigmund Freud A Dangerous Method Christoph Waltz Dr King Schultz Django Unchained Alan Arkin ‡ Lester Siegel Argo Leonardo DiCaprio Calvin J Candie Django Unchained Philip Seymour Hoffman ‡ Lancaster Dodd The Master Tommy Lee Jones ‡ Thaddeus Stevens Lincoln Jared Leto Rayon Dallas Buyers Club Barkhad Abdi ‡ Abduwali Muse Captain Phillips Daniel Brühl Niki Lauda Rush Bradley Cooper ‡ Richard Richie DiMaso American Hustle Michael Fassbender ‡ Edwin Epps Years a Slave J K Simmons Terence Fletcher Whiplash Robert Duvall ‡ Judge Joseph Palmer The Judge Ethan Hawke ‡ Mason Evans Sr Boyhood Edward Norton ‡ Mike Shiner Birdman Mark Ruffalo ‡ Dave Schultz Foxcatcher Rosalind Russell Kristin Scott Thomas Simone Signoret Maggie Smith Sharon Stone Barbra Streisand s edit Year Actress Character Film Katina Paxinou Pilar For Whom the Bell Tolls Agnes Moorehead ‡ Baroness Aspasia Conti Mrs Parkington Angela Lansbury ‡ Sibyl Vane The Picture of Dorian Gray Anne Baxter Sophie MacDonald The Razor s Edge Celeste Holm Anne Dettrey Gentleman s Agreement Ellen Corby ‡ Aunt Trina I Remember Mama Mercedes McCambridge Sadie Burke All the King s Men Miriam Hopkins Aunt Lavinia The Heiress s edit Year Actress Character Film Josephine Hull Veta Louise Simmons Harvey Judy Holliday Doris Attinger Adam s Rib Thelma Ritter ‡ Birdie Kumen All About Eve Kim Hunter Stella Kowalski A Streetcar Named Desire Lee Grant ‡ Shoplifter Detective Story Thelma Ritter ‡ Ellen McNulty The Mating Season Katy Jurado Helen Ramirez High Noon Mildred Dunnock Señora Espejo Viva Zapata Gloria Grahame Rosemary Bartlow The Bad and the Beautiful Grace Kelly ‡ Linda Nordley Mogambo Jan Sterling ‡ Sally McKee The High and the Mighty Marisa Pavan ‡ Rosa Delle Rose The Rose Tattoo Eileen Heckart ‡ Hortense Daigle The Bad Seed Mildred Dunnock ‡ Aunt Rose Comfort Baby Doll Marjorie Main The Widow Hudspeth Friendly Persuasion Dorothy Malone Marylee Hadley Written on the Wind Patty McCormack ‡ Rhoda Penmark The Bad Seed Elsa Lanchester ‡ Miss Plimsoll Witness for the Prosecution Mildred Dunnock Miss Elsie Thornton Peyton Place Hope Lange ‡ Selena Cross Peyton Place Heather Sears Esther Costello The Story of Esther Costello Miyoshi Umeki Katsumi Kelly Sayonara Hermione Gingold Madame Alvarez Gigi Peggy Cass ‡ Agnes Gooch Auntie Mame Wendy Hiller Pat Cooper Separate Tables Maureen Stapleton ‡ Fay Doyle Lonelyhearts Cara Williams ‡ Billy s Mother The Defiant Ones Susan Kohner ‡ Sarah Jane age Imitation of Life Edith Evans Rev Mother Emmanuel Belgium The Nun s Story Estelle Hemsley Grandma Gram Martin Take a Giant Step Juanita Moore ‡ Annie Johnson Imitation of Life Shelley Winters Petronella Van Daan The Diary of Anne Frank s edit Year Actress Character Film Janet Leigh ‡ Marion Crane Psycho Ina Balin Natalie Benzinger From the Terrace Shirley Jones Lulu Bains Elmer Gantry Shirley Knight ‡ Reenie Flood The Dark at the Top of the Stairs Mary Ure ‡ Clara Dawes Sons and Lovers Rita Moreno Anita West Side Story Fay Bainter ‡ Amelia Tilford The Children s Hour Judy Garland ‡ Irene Hoffman Wallner Judgment at Nuremberg Lotte Lenya ‡ Contessa The Roman Spring of Mrs Stone Pamela Tiffin Scarlett Hazeltine One Two Three Angela Lansbury ‡ Mrs Iselin The Manchurian Candidate Patty Duke Helen Keller The Miracle Worker Hermione Gingold Eulalie Mackechnie Shinn The Music Man Shirley Knight ‡ Heavenly Finley Sweet Bird of Youth Susan Kohner Martha Freud Freud Gabriella Pallotta Rosalba Massimo The Pigeon That Took Rome Martha Raye Lulu Billy Rose s Jumbo Kaye Stevens Nurse Didi The Interns Jessica Tandy Mrs Adams Hemingway s Adventures of a Young Man Tarita Teriipaia Maimiti Mutiny on the Bounty Margaret Rutherford The Duchess of Brighton The V I P s Diane Baker Emily Stratman The Prize Joan Greenwood Lady Bellaston Tom Jones Wendy Hiller Anna Berniers Toys in the Attic Linda Marsh Thomna Sinnikoglou America America Patricia Neal won Academy Award for Best Actress Alma Brown Hud Liselotte Pulver Sonya A Global Affair Lilia Skala ‡ Mother Maria Lilies of the Field Agnes Moorehead ‡ Velma Cruther Hush… Hush Sweet Charlotte Elizabeth Ashley Monica Winthrop The Carpetbaggers Grayson Hall ‡ Judith Fellowes The Night of the Iguana Lila Kedrova Madame Hortense Zorba the Greek Alexis Zorbas Ann Sothern Sue Ellen Gamadge The Best Man Ruth Gordon ‡ Mrs Clover The Dealer Inside Daisy Clover Joan Blondell Lady Fingers The Cincinnati Kid Joyce Redman ‡ Emilia Othello Thelma Ritter Bertha Boeing Boeing Peggy Wood ‡ Mother Abbess The Sound of Music Jocelyne LaGarde ‡ Queen Malama Hawaii Sandy Dennis Honey Who s Afraid of Virginia Woolf Vivien Merchant ‡ Lily Alfie Geraldine Page ‡ Margery Chanticleer You re a Big Boy Now Shelley Winters Ruby Alfie Carol Channing ‡ Muzzy Van Hossmere Thoroughly Modern Millie Quentin Dean Delores Purdy In the Heat of the Night Lillian Gish Mrs Smith The Comedians Lee Grant Leslie Colbert In the Heat of the Night Prunella Ransome Fanny Robin Far from the Madding Crowd Beah Richards ‡ Mrs Prentice Guess Who s Coming to Dinner Ruth Gordon Minnie Castevet Rosemary s Baby Barbara Hancock Susan the Silent Finian s Rainbow Abbey Lincoln Ivy Moore For Love of Ivy Sondra Locke ‡ Mick Kelly The Heart Is a Lonely Hunter Jane Merrow Alys Countess of the Vexin The Lion in Winter Goldie Hawn Toni Simmons Cactus Flower Marianne McAndrew Irene Molloy Hello Dolly Siân Phillips Ursula Mossbank Goodbye Mr Chips Brenda Vaccaro Shirley Midnight Cowboy Susannah York ‡ Alice LeBlanc They Shoot Horses Don t They s edit Year Actress Character Film Karen Black ‡ Rayette Dipesto Five Easy Pieces Maureen Stapleton ‡ Inez Guerrero Airport Tina Chen Nyuk Tsin The Hawaiians Lee Grant ‡ Joyce Enders The Landlord Sally Kellerman ‡ Margaret O Houlihan M A S H Ann Margret ‡ Bobbie Carnal Knowledge Ellen Burstyn ‡ Lois Farrow The Last Picture Show Cloris Leachman Ruth Popper The Last Picture Show Diana Rigg Barbara Drummond The Hospital Maureen Stapleton Karen Nash Plaza Suite Shelley Winters ‡ Belle Rosen The Poseidon Adventure Marisa Berenson Natalia Landauer Cabaret Jeannie Berlin ‡ Lila Kolodny The Heartbreak Kid Helena Kallianiotes Jackie Burdette Kansas City Bomber Geraldine Page ‡ Gertrude Pete n Tillie Linda Blair ‡ Regan MacNeil The Exorcist Valentina Cortese ‡ Severine Day for Night La nuit américaine Madeline Kahn ‡ Trixie Delight Paper Moon Kate Reid Claire A Delicate Balance Sylvia Sidney ‡ Mrs Pritchett Summer Wishes Winter Dreams Karen Black Myrtle Wilson The Great Gatsby Beatrice Arthur Vera Charles Mame Jennifer Jones Lisolette Mueller The Towering Inferno Madeline Kahn Elizabeth Young Frankenstein Diane Ladd ‡ Flo Castleberry Alice Doesn t Live Here Anymore Brenda Vaccaro ‡ Linda Riggs Jacqueline Susann s Once Is Not Enough Ronee Blakley ‡ Barbara Jean Nashville Geraldine Chaplin Opal Nashville Lee Grant Felicia Karpf Shampoo Barbara Harris Albuquerque Nashville Lily Tomlin ‡ Linnea Reese Nashville Katharine Ross Mira Hauser Voyage of the Damned Lee Grant ‡ Lili Rosen Voyage of the Damned Marthe Keller Elsa Opel Marathon Man Piper Laurie ‡ Margaret White Carrie Bernadette Peters Vilma Kaplan Silent Movie Shelley Winters Fay Lapinsky Next Stop Greenwich Village Vanessa Redgrave Julia Julia Ann Margret Lady Booby Joseph Andrews Joan Blondell Sarah Goode Opening Night Leslie Browne ‡ Emilia Rodgers The Turning Point Quinn Cummings ‡ Lucy McFadden The Goodbye Girl Lilia Skala Rosa Roseland Dyan Cannon ‡ Julia Farnsworth Heaven Can Wait Carol Burnett Tulip Brenner A Wedding Maureen Stapleton ‡ Pearl Interiors Meryl Streep ‡ Linda The Deer Hunter Mona Washbourne Aunt Stevie Meryl Streep Joanna Kramer Kramer vs Kramer Jane Alexander ‡ Margaret Phelps Kramer vs Kramer Kathleen Beller Elizabeth Buffy Koenig Promises in the Dark Candice Bergen ‡ Jessica Potter Starting Over Valerie Harper Faye Medwick Chapter Two s edit Year Actress Character Film Mary Steenburgen Lynda Dummar Melvin and Howard Lucie Arnaz Molly Bell The Jazz Singer Beverly D Angelo Patsy Cline Coal Miner s Daughter Cathy Moriarty ‡ Vikki LaMotta Raging Bull Debra Winger Sissy Davis Urban Cowboy Joan Hackett ‡ Toby Landau Only When I Laugh Jane Fonda ‡ Chelsea Thayer Wayne On Golden Pond Kristy McNichol Polly Hines Only When I Laugh Maureen Stapleton Emma Goldman Reds Mary Steenburgen Mother Ragtime Jessica Lange Julie Nichols Tootsie Cher Sissy Come Back to the Five and Dime Jimmy Dean Jimmy Dean Lainie Kazan Belle Carroca My Favorite Year Kim Stanley ‡ Lillian Farmer Frances Lesley Ann Warren ‡ Norma Cassady Victor Victoria Cher ‡ Dolly Pelliker Silkwood Barbara Carrera Fatima Blush Never Say Never Again Tess Harper Rosa Lee Tender Mercies Linda Hunt Billy Kwan The Year of Living Dangerously Joanna Pacula Irina Asanova Gorky Park Peggy Ashcroft Mrs Moore A Passage to India Drew Barrymore Casey Brodsky Irreconcilable Differences Kim Basinger Memo Paris The Natural Jacqueline Bisset Yvonne Firmin Under the Volcano Melanie Griffith Holly Body Body Double Christine Lahti ‡ Hazel Swing Shift Lesley Ann Warren Gilda Songwriter Meg Tilly ‡ Sister Agnes Agnes of God Sonia Braga Leni Lamaison Marta Spider Woman Kiss of the Spider Woman Anjelica Huston Maerose Prizzi Prizzi s Honor Amy Madigan ‡ Sunny Twice in a Lifetime Kelly McGillis Rachel Lapp Witness Oprah Winfrey ‡ Sofia Johnson The Color Purple Maggie Smith ‡ Charlotte Bartlett A Room with a View Linda Kozlowski Sue Charlton Crocodile Dundee Mary Elizabeth Mastrantonio ‡ Carmen The Color of Money Cathy Tyson Simone Mona Lisa Dianne Wiest Holly Hannah and Her Sisters Olympia Dukakis Rose Castorini Moonstruck Norma Aleandro ‡ Florencia Gaby A True Story Anne Archer ‡ Beth Gallagher Fatal Attraction Anne Ramsey ‡ Mrs Lift Throw Momma from the Train Vanessa Redgrave Peggy Ramsay Prick Up Your Ears Sigourney Weaver ‡ Katharine Parker Working Girl Sonia Braga Madonna Mendez Moon Over Parador Barbara Hershey Mary Magdalene The Last Temptation of Christ Lena Olin Sabina The Unbearable Lightness of Being Diane Venora Chan Parker Bird Julia Roberts ‡ Shelby Eatenton Latcherie Steel Magnolias Bridget Fonda Mandy Rice Davies Scandal Brenda Fricker Mrs Brown My Left Foot Laura San Giacomo Cynthia Bishop Sex Lies and Videotape Dianne Wiest ‡ Helen Buckman Parenthood s edit Year Actress Character Film Whoopi Goldberg Oda Mae Brown Ghost Lorraine Bracco ‡ Karen Hill Goodfellas Diane Ladd ‡ Marietta Fortune Wild at Heart Shirley MacLaine Doris Mann Postcards from the Edge Mary McDonnell ‡ Stands With a Fist Dances with Wolves Winona Ryder Charlotte Flax Mermaids Mercedes Ruehl Anne Napolitano The Fisher King Nicole Kidman Drew Preston Billy Bathgate Diane Ladd ‡ Mother Rambling Rose Juliette Lewis ‡ Danielle Bowden Cape Fear Jessica Tandy ‡ Ninny Threadgoode Fried Green Tomatoes Joan Plowright ‡ Mrs Fisher Enchanted April Geraldine Chaplin Hannah Chaplin Chaplin Judy Davis ‡ Sally Husbands and Wives Miranda Richardson ‡ Ingrid Fleming Damage Alfre Woodard Chantelle Passion Fish Winona Ryder ‡ May Welland The Age of Innocence Penelope Ann Miller Gail Carlito s Way Anna Paquin Flora McGrath The Piano Rosie Perez ‡ Carla Rodrigo Fearless Emma Thompson ‡ Gareth Peirce In the Name of the Father Dianne Wiest Helen Sinclair Bullets Over Broadway Kirsten Dunst Claudia Interview with the Vampire Sophia Loren Isabella de la Fontaine Prêt à Porter Uma Thurman ‡ Mia Wallace Pulp Fiction Robin Wright Jenny Curran Forrest Gump Mira Sorvino Linda Ash Mighty Aphrodite Anjelica Huston Mary The Crossing Guard Kathleen Quinlan ‡ Marilyn Lovell Apollo Kyra Sedgwick Emma Rae King Something to Talk About Kate Winslet ‡ Marianne Dashwood Sense and Sensibility Lauren Bacall ‡ Hannah Morgan The Mirror Has Two Faces Joan Allen ‡ Elizabeth Proctor The Crucible Juliette Binoche Hana The English Patient Barbara Hershey ‡ Madame Serena Merle The Portrait of a Lady Marianne Jean Baptiste ‡ Hortense Cumberbatch Secrets Lies Marion Ross Rosie Dunlop The Evening Star Kim Basinger Lynn Bracken L A Confidential Joan Cusack ‡ Emily Montgomery In Out Julianne Moore ‡ Amber Waves Boogie Nights Gloria Stuart ‡ Rose Calvert Titanic Sigourney Weaver Janey Carver The Ice Storm Lynn Redgrave ‡ Hanna Gods and Monsters Kathy Bates ‡ Libby Holden Primary Colors Brenda Blethyn ‡ Mari Hoff Little Voice Judi Dench Queen Elizabeth I Shakespeare in Love Sharon Stone Gwen Dillon The Mighty Angelina Jolie Lisa Rowe Girl Interrupted Cameron Diaz Lotte Schwartz Being John Malkovich Catherine Keener ‡ Maxine Lund Being John Malkovich Samantha Morton ‡ Hattie Sweet and Lowdown Natalie Portman Ann August Anywhere But Here Chloë Sevigny ‡ Lana Tisdel Boys Don t Cry s edit Year Actress Character Film Kate Hudson ‡ Penny Lane Almost Famous Judi Dench ‡ Armande Voizin Chocolat Frances McDormand ‡ Elaine Miller Almost Famous Julie Walters ‡ Sandra Wilkinson Billy Elliot Catherine Zeta Jones Helena Ayala Traffic Jennifer Connelly Alicia Nash A Beautiful Mind Cameron Diaz Julie Gianni Vanilla Sky Helen Mirren ‡ Mrs Wilson Gosford Park Maggie Smith ‡ Constance Trentham Gosford Park Marisa Tomei ‡ Natalie Strout In the Bedroom Kate Winslet ‡ Iris Murdoch Young Iris Meryl Streep ‡ Susan Orlean Adaptation Kathy Bates ‡ Roberta Hertzel About Schmidt Cameron Diaz Jenny Everdeane Gangs of New York Queen Latifah ‡ Matron Mama Morton Chicago Susan Sarandon Mimi Slocumb Igby Goes Down Renée Zellweger Ruby Thewes Cold Mountain Maria Bello Natalie Belisario The Cooler Patricia Clarkson ‡ Joy Burns Pieces of April Hope Davis Joyce Brabner American Splendor Holly Hunter ‡ Melanie Freeland Thirteen Natalie Portman ‡ Alice Ayres Jane Jones Closer Cate Blanchett Katharine Hepburn The Aviator Laura Linney ‡ Clara McMillen Kinsey Virginia Madsen ‡ Maya Randall Sideways Meryl Streep Eleanor Shaw The Manchurian Candidate Rachel Weisz Tessa Quayle The Constant Gardener Scarlett Johansson Nola Rice Match Point Shirley MacLaine Ella Hirsch In Her Shoes Frances McDormand ‡ Glory Dodge North Country Michelle Williams ‡ Alma Beers Del Mar Brokeback Mountain Jennifer Hudson Effie White Dreamgirls Adriana Barraza ‡ Amelia Hernandez Babel Cate Blanchett ‡ Bathsheba Hart Notes on a Scandal Emily Blunt Emily Charlton The Devil Wears Prada Rinko Kikuchi ‡ Chieko Wataya Babel Cate Blanchett ‡ Jude Quinn I m Not There Julia Roberts Joanne Herring Charlie Wilson s War Saoirse Ronan ‡ Briony Tallis age Atonement Amy Ryan ‡ Helene McCready Gone Baby Gone Tilda Swinton Karen Crowder Michael Clayton Kate Winslet won Academy Award for Best Actress Hanna Schmitz The Reader Amy Adams ‡ Sister James Doubt Penélope Cruz María Elena Vicky Cristina Barcelona Viola Davis ‡ Mrs Miller Doubt Marisa Tomei ‡ Cassidy Pam The Wrestler Mo Nique Mary Lee Johnston Precious Penélope Cruz ‡ Carla Albanese Nine Vera Farmiga ‡ Alexandra Alex Goran Up in the Air Anna Kendrick ‡ Natalie Keener Up in the Air Julianne Moore Charley Miller A Single Man s edit Year Actress Character Film Melissa Leo Alice Ward The Fighter Amy Adams ‡ Charlene Fleming The Fighter Helena Bonham Carter ‡ Queen Elizabeth The King s Speech Mila Kunis Lily The Black Swan Black Swan Jacki Weaver ‡ Janine Smurf Cody Animal Kingdom Octavia Spencer Minny Jackson The Help Bérénice Bejo ‡ Peppy Miller The Artist Jessica Chastain ‡ Celia Foote The Help Janet McTeer ‡ Hubert Page Albert Nobbs Shailene Woodley Alexandra Alex King The Descendants Anne Hathaway Fantine Les Misérables Amy Adams ‡ Peggy Dodd The Master Sally Field ‡ Mary Todd Lincoln Lincoln Helen Hunt ‡ Cheryl Cohen Greene The Sessions Nicole Kidman Charlotte Bless The Paperboy Jennifer Lawrence ‡ Rosalyn Rosenfeld American Hustle Sally Hawkins ‡ Ginger Blue Jasmine Lupita Nyong o Patsey Years a Slave Julia Roberts ‡ Barbara Weston Fordham August Osage County June Squibb ‡ Kate Grant Nebraska Patricia Arquette Olivia Evans Boyhood Jessica Chastain Anna Morales A Most Violent Year Keira Knightley ‡ Joan Clarke The Imitation Game Emma Stone ‡ Sam Thomson Birdman Meryl Streep ‡ The Witch Into the Woods Hilary Swank Tilda Swinton Charlize Theron Uma Thurman Emily Watson Shelley Winters Jane Wyman Johnny Depp The Mad Hatter Alice in Wonderland Frank Tupelo The Tourist Jake Gyllenhaal Jamie Randall Love and Other Drugs Kevin Spacey Jack Abramoff Casino Jack Jean Dujardin George Valentin The Artist Brendan Gleeson Sgt Gerry Boyle The Guard Joseph Gordon Levitt Adam Lerner Ryan Gosling Jacob Palmer Crazy Stupid Love Owen Wilson Gil Pender Midnight in Paris Hugh Jackman ‡ Jean Valjean Les Misérables Jack Black Bernie Tiede Bernie Bradley Cooper ‡ Patrick Pat Solatano Jr Silver Linings Playbook Ewan McGregor Dr Alfred Jones Salmon Fishing in the Yemen Bill Murray Franklin Delano Roosevelt Hyde Park on Hudson Leonardo DiCaprio ‡ Jordan Belfort The Wolf of Wall Street Christian Bale ‡ Irving Rosenfeld American Hustle Bruce Dern ‡ Woody Grant Nebraska Oscar Isaac Llewyn Davis Inside Llewyn Davis Joaquin Phoenix Theodore Twombly Her Michael Keaton ‡ Riggan Thomson Birdman Ralph Fiennes Monsieur Gustave H The Grand Budapest Hotel Bill Murray Vincent MacKenna St Vincent Joaquin Phoenix Larry Doc Sportello Inherent Vice Christoph Waltz Walter Keane Big Eyes The Sisters Nancy Pecket The Baxter Caroline Swann The Year Old Virgin Beth Daltry Calhoun May Slither Starla Grant Invincible Janet Cantrell Spider Man Betty Brant Meet Bill Jess Fred Claus Charlene Definitely Maybe Emily Jones Meet Dave Gina Morrison Lovely Still Alex Zack and Miri Make a Porno Miriam Miri Linky W Laura Bush Role Models Beth Jones Big Breaks Starlet Cortometraje The Uninvited Rachel Summers Surrogates N A Productora ejecutiva The Next Three Days Lara Brennan The Details Nealy Lang Just a Little Heart Attack Woman Cortometraje Directora Our Idiot Brother Miranda Man on a Ledge Lydia Mercer


abby-lane abby-rode abigail-clayton ada-tauler addie-juniper addison-cain adele-wiesenthal adeline-lange adeline-pollicina adriana-amante adrianna-laurenti adrianna-russo agnes agnes-ardant agnes-zalontai aimee-addison aisha-sun aja aleena-ferari alessandra-schiavo aletta-ocean alexandra-nice alexandria-cass alexa-parks alex-dane alex-foxe alexia-knight alexis-devell alexis-firestone alexis-greco alexis-payne alexis-x alex-storm alex-white aliana-love alice-springs alicia-alighatti alicia-monet alicia-rio alicyn-sterling alighiera-olena ali-moore aline-santos alissa-ashley allysin-chaynes alysin-embers alyssa-love alyssa-reece amanda-addams amanda-blake amanda-blue amanda-jane-adams amanda-rae amanda-stone amanda-tyler amber-hunt amberlina-lynn amber-lynn amber-michaels amber-peach amber-wild amber-woods ambrosia-fox amia-miley ami-rodgers amy-allison amy-brooke amy-rose amy-starz anastasia-christ anastasia-sands andrea-adams andrea-brittian andrea-lange andrea-true andy angel angela-baron angela-summers angel-barrett angel-cash angel-cruz angel-cummings angel-ducharme angelica-sin angelika-reschner angelina-brasini angelina-korrs angelina-valentine angel-kelly angel-long angel-west angie-knight anita-andic anita-blond anita-cannibal anita-dark anna-belle anna-malle anna-nikova anna-pierce anna-ventura anna-veruska anne-bie-warburg anne-libert anne-magle anne-sand annette-haven annie-sprinkle ann-kiray ann-marie-michelle antonia-dorian april-flowers april-may april-west arcadia-lake ariana-bali ariana-jollee arlana-blue ashley-anne ashley-brooks ashley-coda ashley-fires ashley-lauren ashley-long ashley-marie ashley-nicole ashley-perk ashley-renee ashley-robbins ashley-welles ashley-wells ashley-winger ashlyn-gere astrid-bone athena-star aubrey-nichols aurora aurora-snow autumn-bliss autumn-rayne ava-devine ava-lauren avalon ava-marteens avy-lee-roth bailey-monroe bambi-allen barbara-bourbon barbara-boutet barbara-dare barbara-doll barbara-moose barbarella barbie-angel barbie-doll barett-moore bea-fiedler beata beatrice-poggi beatrice-valle becky-savage becky-sunshine belinda-butterfield bella-donna bethany-sweet beverly-bliss beverly-glen biggi-stenzhorn bionca black-widow blond-cat blondi blue-angel bobbi-bliss bobbi-dean bobbie-burns bonnie-holiday brandee brandi-edwards brandy-alexandre brandy-dean brandy-lee brandy-smile brandy-wine bree-anthony breezy-lane brenda-basse briana-blair bridgette-belle bridgette-monet bridgette-monroe bridget-waters brigitte-lahaie brigitte-monnin brigitte-verbecq brittany brittany-stryker britt-corvin britt-morgan bronze brooke-bennett brooke-fields brooke-haven brooke-west brook-van-buuren buffy-davis bunnie-blake bunny-bleu bunny-hatton busty-belle cali-caramel calisyn-heart cameo cameron-love camila-sampaio camilla-rhodes camille-morgan camrie-foxxx candace-daley candi candida-royalle candie-evens candi-summers candy-apples candy-barr candy-hill candy-samples candy-stanton cara-lott caressa-savage carmel-nougat carmen-blonde carmen-de-la-torre carmen-moore carmen-rose carol-connors carol-cross carol-cummings carole-dubois carole-gire carole-pierac carol-titian carolyn-connoly carolyn-monroe carrie-cruise cassandra-leigh cassidy cassie-courtland cataline-bullock catherine-count catherine-crystal catherine-ringer catherine-tailleferre cathy-delorme cathy-menard cathy-stewart celeste-fox celine-gallone chanel-preston chanel-price chantal-virapin chanta-rose chantelle-stevens charisma charisma-cole charlie-latour charlie-waters charlotte-de-castille charmane-star chasey-lain chayse-manhattan chaz-vincent chelsea-sinclaire chennin-blanc cheri-janvier cheri-taylor cherry-hill chessie-moore cheyenne-hunter cheyenne-silver china-lee china-leigh china-moon chloe-cruize chloe-dior chloe-kez chloe-stevens chris-collins chris-jordan chris-petersen chrissie-beauchamp christa-abel christa-ludwig christie-ford christi-lake christina-berg christina-blond christina-evol christina-skye christine-black christine-chavert christine-neona christine-rigoler christy-canyon cicciolina cindi-stephens cindy-carver cindy-crawford cindy-more cindy-shepard cindy-wong cinthya-marinho clair-dia claire-robbins claude-janna claudia-jackson claudia-jamsson claudia-mehringer claudia-nero claudia-van-statt claudia-zante claudine-beccarie clea-carson cleo-nichole cleo-patra cody-lane cody-love cody-nicole coffee-brown colleen-brennan connie-bennett connie-peterson constance-money copper-penny coreena corey-everson corinne-lemoine corneliah cory-everson cory-wolf courtney courtney-cummz courtney-james cris-cassidy crissy-moran cris-taliana crystal-breeze crystal-dawn crystal-holland crystal-knight crystal-lake crystal-lovin crystal-sync csilla-kalnay cuban-bee cynara-fox cyndee-summers cynthia-black cynthia-brooks cynthia-hammers cynthia-lavigne dagmar-lost daisy-layne dallas-miko dana-dylan dana-lynn danica-rhea daniela-nanou daniela-schiffer daniele-troeger daniella daniella-schiffer danielle danielle-foxxx danielle-rodgers danny-ricci danyel-cheeks daphne daphne-rosen darby-lloyd-rains darla-crane darla-delovely davia-ardell dayton-rain debbie-northrup debbie-revenge debbie-van-gils debi-diamond debi-jointed debra-lynn deidra-hopkins deidre-holland delania-raffino delia-moore delphine-thail delta-force delta-white demi-moor denice-klarskov denise-derringer denise-dior denise-sloan desiree-cousteau desiree-foxx desiree-lane desiree-west deva-station devin-devasquez devinn-lane devon-shire dia diana-holt diana-kisabonyi diana-siefert diana-stevenson diane-dubois diane-richards diane-sloan diane-suresne dido-angel dillan-lauren dina-deville dina-jewel dina-pearl ditty-blue diva divinity-love djiana dolly-darkley dominique dominique-dewitt dominique-saint-claire donna-hart donna-marie dorle-buchner dorothy-lemay dorothy-onan drea drimla dru-berrymore dusty-rose dyanna-lauren ebony-ayes edina-blond edita-ungerova edwige-faillel eileen-wells elaine-southern elena-berkova elena-maria-ricci eleonore-melzer elisabeth-bure elis-black elise elise-di-medici elle-devyne elle-rio elodie-delage elsa-maroussia elza-brown emili-doll emily-evermoore emily-george emily-jewel emmanuelle-pareze envy-mi erica-boyer erica-eaton erica-havens erica-idol erica-lauren erika-bella erika-cool erika-heaven erika-lockett esme-monroe eva-allen eva-angel eva-dionisio eva-gross eva-kleber eva-lux eva-uettori eve-laurence evelyne-lang evie-delatosso fabiana-venturi faith-stevens fallon fanny-garreau fanny-steel faye-runaway flame flick-shagwell flore-soller flower france-lomay france-quenie francoise frankie-leigh gabriella gabriella-mirelba gabriella-vincze gail-force gail-palmer gail-sterling georgette-saunders georgia-peach georgina-spelvin gia-givanna gianna-lynn gili-sky gina-carrera gina-gianetti gina-janssen gina-lee gina-martell gina-valentino ginger-jay ginger-lee ginger-lynn ginny-noack giovanna gisela-schwarz giselle-monet gladys-laroche gloria-leonard gloria-todd golden-jade greta-carlson greta-milos guia-lauri-filzi gwenda-farnel hare-krane harley-raine hayley-jade hazel-young heather-deeley heather-ellis heather-hart heather-lere heather-lyn heather-manfield heather-thomas heather-torrance heather-wayne heather-young helen-madigan helen-thomas helga-sven helga-wild hillary-summers holly-hollywood holly-joy holly-page holly-ryder honey-winter hottie-hollie hyapatia-lee ida-fabry ildiko-smits illana-moor ines-ridere ingrid-choray isabella-dior isabella-soprano isabelle-allay isabelle-brell isabelle-marchall isobel-wren iveta ivette-blanche jackie-right jacqueline-lorians jacy-allen jada-stevens jade-east jade-hsu jade-marcela jade-summers jade-wong jahn-gold jamie-brooks jamie-james jamie-summers jana-irrova jana-mrazkova jane-baker jane-darling jane-iwanoff jane-lindsay jane-lixx janet-jacme janey-robbins jasmine-delatori jayden-simone jaylyn-rose jayna-woods jazella-moore jazmin-luna-gold jean-afrique jeanette-littledove jeanie-marie-sullivan jean-jennings jeanna-fine jeannie-pepper jenna-jameson jenna-jane jenna-presley jenna-wells jennifer-haussmann jennifer-janes jennifer-jordan jennifer-morante jennifer-noxt jennifer-stewart jennifer-welles jennifer-west jenny jenny-feeling jenny-fields jenny-wings jersey-jaxin jesie-st-james jesse-capelli jessica-bangkok jessica-bogart jessica-darlin jessica-fiorentino jessica-gabriel jessica-laine jessica-may jessica-road jessica-wylde jessi-foster jill-ferari jill-kelly joana-redgrave joan-devlon joanna-storm joanna-sweet jody-maxwell joelle-lequement joelle-petinot johnni-black jordana-james jordan-green jordan-nevaeh jordan-star josephine-carrington joslyn-james julia-chanel julia-dal-fuoco juliana-grandi julia-paes julia-parton julia-perrin julia-swen julia-thomas julie-meadows julie-rage julie-simone juliet-anderson juliet-graham juliette-carelton kacey-jordan kagney-linn-karter kaitlyn-ashley kalena-rios kami-andrews kamila-smith kandee-licks kandi-barbour kapri-styles kara-nox karen-summer kari-foxx karine-gambier karin-schubert karli-sweet karmen-kennedy karol-castro kascha kassi-nova kat kate-frost kate-jones kathia-nobili kathleen-gentry kathleen-white kathy-divan kathy-harcourt kathy-heart kathy-kash katie-cummings katja-love kat-langer katrina-isis katrina-kraven katy-borman katy-caro kaycee-dean kayla-kupcakes kay-parker k-c-valentine keama-kim keira-moon keisha keli-richards kelli-tyler kelly-adams kelly-blue kelly-broox kelly-hearn kelly-kay kelly-kline kelly-nichols kelly-royce kelly-skyline kendra-kay kenzi-marie keri-windsor ketthy-divan kianna-dior kiley-heart kim-alexis kimber-blake kimberly-carson kimberly-kane kimberly-kyle kim-de-place kim-holland kimi-gee kimkim-de kim-kitaine kimmie-lee kimmy-nipples kina-kara kira-eggers kira-red kirsty-waay kitty-langdon kitty-lynxxx kitty-marie kitty-shayne kitty-yung kora-cummings kris-lara krista-lane krista-maze kristara-barrington kristarah-knight kristi-klenot kristina-blonde kristina-king kristina-klevits kristina-soderszk kristine-heller kristin-steen krisztina-ventura krystal-de-boor krystal-steal kylee-karr kylee-nash kylie-brooks kylie-channel kylie-haze kylie-wylde kym-wilde kyoto-sun lachelle-marie lacy-rose lady-amanda-wyldefyre lady-stephanie laetitia-bisset lana-burner lana-cox lana-wood lara-amour lara-roxx lara-stevens lataya-roxx latoya laura-clair laura-lazare laura-lion laura-may laura-orsolya laura-paouck laura-zanzibar lauren-black laurence-boutin lauren-montgomery laurien-dominique laurien-wilde laurie-smith lauryl-canyon lauryn-may leah-wilde lea-magic lea-martini leanna-foxxx lee-caroll leigh-livingston leilani lenora-bruce leslie-winston lesllie-bovee letizia-bruni lexi-lane lexi-matthews lezley-zen lia-fire liliane-gray liliane-lemieuvre lili-marlene lily-gilder lily-labeau lily-rodgers lily-valentine linda-shaw linda-vale linda-wong linnea-quigley lisa-bright lisa-de-leeuw lisa-k-loring lisa-lake lisa-melendez lisa-sue-corey lise-pinson little-oral-annie liza-dwyer liza-harper lizzy-borden logan-labrent lois-ayres lola-cait long-jean-silver loni-bunny loni-sanders loona-luxx lorelei-lee lorelei-rand lorena-sanchez lori-alexia lori-blue lorrie-lovett luci-diamond lucie-doll lucie-theodorova lucy-van-dam lydia-baum lynn-franciss lynn-lemay lynn-ray lynn-stevens lynx-canon lysa-thatcher madelina-ray madison-parker magdalena-lynn maggie-randall mai-lin mandi-wine mandy-bright mandy-malone mandy-may mandy-mistery mandy-starr marcia-minor maren margit-ojetz margitta-hofer margo-stevens margot-mahler mariah-cherry marianne-aubert maria-tortuga marie-anne marie-christine-chireix marie-christine-veroda marie-claude-moreau marie-dominique-cabannes marie-france-morel marie-luise-lusewitz marie-sharp marilyn-chambers marilyne-leroy marilyn-gee marilyn-jess marilyn-martyn marilyn-star marina-hedman marion-webb marita-ekberg marita-kemper marlena marlene-willoughby marry-queen martine-grimaud martine-schultz maryanne-fisher mary-hubay mary-ramunno mary-stuart mascha-mouton maud-kennedy mauvais-denoir maxine-tyler maya-black maya-france megan-leigh megan-martinez megan-reece mei-ling melanie-hotlips melanie-scott melba-cruz melinda-russell melissa-bonsardo melissa-del-prado melissa-golden melissa-martinez melissa-melendez melissa-monet mercedes-dragon mercedes-lynn merle-michaels mesha-lynn mia-beck mia-lina mia-smiles michele-raven michelle-aston michelle-ferrari michelle-greco michelle-maren michelle-maylene michelle-monroe micki-lynn mika-barthel mika-tan mikki-taylor mimi-morgan mindy-rae ming-toy miranda-stevens miss-bunny miss-meadow miss-pomodoro missy missy-graham missy-stone missy-vega misti-jane mistress-candice misty-anderson misty-dawn misty-rain misty-regan mona-lisa mona-page moni monica-baal monica-swinn monika-peta monika-sandmayr monika-unco monique-bruno monique-cardin monique-charell monique-demoan monique-gabrielle monique-la-belle morgan-fairlane morrigan-hel moxxie-maddron mulani-rivera mysti-may nadege-arnaud nadia-styles nadine-bronx nadine-proutnal nadine-roussial nadi-phuket nanci-suiter nancy-hoffman nancy-vee natacha-delyro natalia-wood natalli-diangelo natascha-throat natasha-skyler naudia-nyce nessa-devil nessy-grant nesty nicki-hunter nicky-reed nicole-berg nicole-bernard nicole-black nicole-grey nicole-london nicole-parks nicole-scott nicole-taylor nicolette-fauludi nicole-west nika-blond nika-mamic niki-cole nikita-love nikita-rush nikki-charm nikki-grand nikki-king nikki-knight nikki-randall nikki-rhodes nikki-santana nikki-steele nikki-wilde niko nina-cherry nina-deponca nina-hartley nina-preta oana-efria obaya-roberts olesja-derevko olga-cabaeva olga-conti olga-pechova olga-petrova olivia-alize olivia-del-rio olivia-flores olivia-la-roche olivia-outre ophelia-tozzi orchidea-keresztes orsolya-blonde paige-turner paisley-hunter pamela-bocchi pamela-jennings pamela-mann pamela-stanford pamela-stealt pandora paola-albini pascale-vital pat-manning pat-rhea patricia-dale patricia-diamond patricia-kennedy patricia-rhomberg patrizia-predan patti-cakes patti-petite paula-brasile paula-harlow paula-morton paula-price paula-winters pauline-teutscher penelope-pumpkins penelope-valentin petra-hermanova petra-lamas peyton-lafferty phaedra-grant pia-snow piper-fawn pipi-anderson porsche-lynn porsha-carrera precious-silver priscillia-lenn purple-passion queeny-love rachel-ashley rachel-love rachel-luv rachel-roxxx rachel-ryan rachel-ryder racquel-darrian rane-revere raven reagan-maddux rebecca-bardoux regan-anthony regine-bardot regula-mertens reina-leone reka-gabor renae-cruz renee-foxx renee-lovins renee-morgan renee-perez renee-summers renee-tiffany rhonda-jo-petty rikki-blake riley-ray rio-mariah rita-ricardo roberta-gemma roberta-pedon robin-byrd robin-cannes robin-everett robin-sane rochell-starr rosa-lee-kimball rosemarie roxanne-blaze roxanne-hall roxanne-rollan ruby-richards sabina-k sabre sabrina-chimaera sabrina-dawn sabrina-jade sabrina-johnson sabrina-love-cox sabrina-mastrolorenzi sabrina-rose sabrina-scott sabrina-summers sacha-davril sahara sahara-sands sai-tai-tiger samantha-fox samantha-ryan samantha-sterlyng samantha-strong samueline-de-la-rosa sandra-cardinale sandra-de-marco sandra-kalermen sandra-russo sandy-lee sandy-pinney sandy-reed sandy-samuel sandy-style sandy-summers sara-brandy-canyon sara-faye sarah-bernard sarah-cabrera sarah-hevyn sarah-mills sarah-shine sara-sloane sasha sasha-hollander sasha-ligaya sasha-rose satine-phoenix satin-summer savannah-stern savanna-jane scarlet-scarleau scarlet-windsor seka selena serena serena-south severine-amoux shana-evans shanna-mccullough shannon-kelly shannon-rush shantell-day sharon-da-vale sharon-kane sharon-mitchell shaun-michelle shawna-sexton shawnee-cates shay-hendrix shayne-ryder sheena-horne sheer-delight shelby-star shelby-stevens shelly-berlin shelly-lyons sheri-st-clair sheyla-cats shonna-lynn shyla-foxxx shy-love sierra-sinn sierra-skye sigrun-theil silver-starr silvia-bella silvia-saint silvie-de-lux silvy-taylor simone-west sindee-coxx sindy-lange sindy-shy siobhan-hunter skylar-knight skylar-price skyler-dupree smokie-flame smoking-mary-jane solange-shannon sonya-summers sophia-santi sophie-call sophie-duflot sophie-evans sophie-guers stacey-donovan stacy-lords stacy-moran stacy-nichols stacy-silver stacy-thorn starla-fox starr-wood stefania-bruni stella-virgin stephanie-duvalle stephanie-rage stephanie-renee stevie-taylor summer-knight summer-rose sunny-day sunset-thomas sunshine-seiber susan-hart susanne-brend susan-nero susi-hotkiss suzanne-mcbain suzan-nielsen suzie-bartlett suzie-carina suzi-sparks sweet-nice sweety-pie sybille-rossani sylvia-benedict sylvia-bourdon sylvia-brand sylvia-engelmann syreeta-taylor syren-de-mer syvette szabina-black szilvia-lauren tai-ellis taija-rae taisa-banx talia-james tamara-lee tamara-longley tamara-n-joy tamara-west tami-white tammy tammy-lee tammy-reynolds tania-lorenzo tantala-ray tanya-danielle tanya-fox tanya-foxx tanya-lawson tanya-valis tara-aire tasha-voux tatjana-belousova tatjana-skomorokhova tawnee-lee tawny-pearl tayla-rox taylor-wane teddi-austin teddi-barrett tera-bond tera-heart tera-joy teresa-may teresa-orlowski teri-diver teri-weigel terri-dolan terri-hall tess-ferre tess-newheart thais-vieira tia-cherry tianna tiara tiffany-blake tiffany-clark tiffany-duponte tiffany-rayne tiffany-rousso tiffany-storm tiffany-towers tiffany-tyler tiger-lily tigr timea-vagvoelgyi tina-blair tina-burner tina-evil tina-gabriel tina-loren tina-marie tina-russell tish-ambrose tommi-rose tonisha-mills topsy-curvey tori-secrets tori-sinclair tori-welles tracey-adams traci-lords traci-topps traci-winn tracy-duzit tracy-love tracy-williams tricia-devereaux tricia-yen trinity-loren trisha-rey trista-post trixie-tyler ultramax ursula-gaussmann ursula-moore uschi-karnat valentina valerie-leveau valery-hilton vanessa-chase vanessa-del-rio vanessa-michaels vanessa-ozdanic vanilla-deville velvet-summers veri-knotty veronica-dol veronica-hart veronica-hill veronica-rayne veronica-sage veronika-vanoza via-paxton vicky-lindsay vicky-vicci victoria-evans victoria-gold victoria-knight victoria-luna victoria-paris victoria-slick victoria-zdrok viper virginie-caprice vivian-valentine vivien-martines wendi-white wendy-divine whitney-banks whitney-fears whitney-wonders wonder-tracey wow-nikki xanthia-berstein yasmine-fitzgerald yelena-shieffer yvonne-green zara-whites zsanett-egerhazi zuzie-boobies

The Hunger Games Effie Trinket What to Expect When You re Expecting Wendy People Like Us Frankie Pitch Perfect Gail Abernathy McKadden Productora Movie Amy Segmento «Beezel» Directora del segmento «Middleschool Date» The Hunger Games Catching Fire Effie Trinket Little Accidents Diane Doyle The Lego Movie Wyldstyle Lucy Voz Walk of Shame Meghan Miles Every Secret Thing Detective Nancy Porter Love and Mercy Melinda Ledbetter Wilson The Hunger Games Mockingjay Part Effie Trinket Pitch Perfect Gail Abernathy McKadden Directora y productora Magic Mike XXL Paris The Hunger Games Mockingjay Part Effie Trinket En producción Televisión editar Año Título Rol Notas All My Children Waitress episodio Third Watch Elaine Elchisak Episodio «Patterns» acreditado como Elizabeth Maresal Mitchell Sex and the City Catherine Episodio «Politically Erect» Law Order Special Victims Unit Jaina Tobias Jansen Episodio «Sacrifice» Without a Trace Clarissa Episodio «Snatch Back» Stella Tamara Episodio «Meeting Girls» Scrubs Dr Kim Briggs episodios Wainy Days Shelly episodios American Dad Becky Arangino Lisa Silver Voz episodios Gina Rodriguez Josh Peck y Ludacris Sarah Hyland y Tyler Posey Lucy Hale y Darren Criss Demi Lovato y Kevin McHale Kaley Cuoco Katy Perry y los chicos de Glee Jonas Brothers Miley Cyrus Nick Cannon y Hilary Duff Dane Cook y Jessica Simpson Hilary Duff y Rob Schneider Paris Hilton y Nicole Richie David Spade Actuaciones en vivo editar Seconds Of Summer Little Mix Jussie Smollett y Jazz de Empire y FloRida y Robin Thicke Jason Derülo Demi Lovato ft Cher Lloyd Becky G y Magic Paramore One Direction Florida Georgia Line ft Nelly y Demi Lovato No Doubt Flo Rida DJ Pauly D Carly Rae Jepsen y Justin Bieber Selena Gomez the Scene Jason Derülo One Republic Katy Perry Jason Derulo Travis McCoy y Bruno Mars Justin Bieber Sean Kingston The Black Eyed Peas Miley Cyrus Jonas Brothers Mariah Carey Miley Cyrus Jonas Brothers en preguntale a los Jonas Brothers ACDC Crew y M M Cru Kelly Clarkson Avril Lavigne Fergie y Shop Boyz Kevin Federline Rihanna y Nelly Furtado con Timbaland Gwen Stefani Black Eyed Peas Simple Plan The Pussycat Dolls Blink Lenny Kravitz Ashlee Simpson y JoJo Kelly Clarkson Evanescence y The Donnas Nelly BBMak y Jennifer Love Hewitt Usher Shaggy y Aaron Carter con Nick Carter No Doubt Enrique Iglesias Degrees y BBMak Christina Aguilera Britney Spears Blink y N Sync con Gloria Estefan Categorías editar Cine editar Mejor película de acción Mejor película de comedia Mejor película de drama Mejor película de terror Mejor actor en aventura de acción Mejor actriz en aventura de acción Mejor actor en película de comedia Mejor actriz en película de comedia Mejor actor en película de drama Mejor actriz en película de drama Mejor actor en película de terror Mejor actriz en película de terror Mejor química Mejor ataque de ira Mejor beso Mejor embustero Mejor villano Actriz revelación Actor revelación Música editar Mejor artista masculino Mejor artista femenina Mejor banda Mejor single Mejor vídeo actualmente eliminada A Tall Winter s Tale Elizabeth Private Parts Hija de Howard primer papel The Object of My Affection Molly Advice from a Caterpillar Lizbeth Cradle Will Rock Silvano Giovanna Annie Molly Rol Secundario Joe Gould s Secret Elizabeth Mitchell For other uses see Marriage disambiguation "Married" and "Matrimony" redirect here For other uses see Married disambiguation and Matrimony disambiguation "Husband and Wife" redirects here For the film see Husband and Wife film A pair of wedding ringsPart of a series on the Anthropology of kinship Basic concepts Affinity Consanguinity Marriage Incest taboo Endogamy Exogamy Moiety Monogamy Polygyny Polygamy Polyandry Bride price Bride service Dowry Parallel cross cousins Cousin marriage Levirate Ghost marriage Joking relationship Family Lineage Clan Fictive Milk Nurture kinship Descent Cognatic Bilateral Matrilateral House society Avunculate Linealities Ambilineality Unilineality Matrilineality Patrilineality Household forms and residence Extended Matrifocal Matrilocal Nuclear Patrilocal Gender Third gender Terminology Kinship terminology Classificatory terminologies By group Iroquois Crow Omaha Eskimo Hawaiian Sudanese Dravidian Case studies Australian Aboriginal Burmese Chinese Philippine Polyandry in Tibet in India Gender Mosuo matrilineality Chambri female dominant Hijra third gender Sexuality Coming of Age in Samoa Major theorists Diane Bell Tom Boellstorff Jack Goody Gilbert Herdt Don Kulick Roger Lancaster Louise Lamphere Eleanor Leacock Claude Lévi Strauss Bronislaw Malinowski Margaret Mead Henrietta Moore Lewis H Morgan Stephen O Murray Michelle Rosaldo David M Schneider Marilyn Strathern Related articles Alliance theory Matrilineal matrilocal societies Feminist anthropology Sex and Repression in Savage Society Social anthropology Cultural anthropology v t e Relationships Types Genetic Kinship Family Sibling Cousin By marriage Husband Wife Open marriage Polyandry Polygamy Partner Partners Significant other Boyfriend Girlfriend Cohabitation Same sex Life partner Friendship romantic Sexual Casual Monogamy Non monogamy Polyamory Polyfidelity Cicisbeo Concubinage Courtesan Mistress Activities Bonding Courtship Dating Mating Meet market Romance Singles event Wedding Endings Breakup Separation Annulment Divorce Widowhood Emotions and feelings Affinity Attachment Intimacy Jealousy Limerence Love Platonic unconditional Passion Sexuality Practices Bride price dower dowry service Hypergamy Infidelity Sexual activity Transgression Repression Abuse Abusive relationship Child Dating Domestic Elderly v t e Swedish royal wedding clothes from Livrustkammaren in StockholmMarriage also called matrimony or wedlock is a socially or ritually recognized union or legal contract between spouses that establishes rights and obligations between them between them and their children and between them and their in laws The definition of marriage varies according to different cultures but it is principally an institution in which interpersonal relationships usually sexual are acknowledged In some cultures marriage is recommended or considered to be compulsory before pursuing any sexual activity When defined broadly marriage is considered a cultural universal Nepali wedding party in traditional dressIndividuals may marry for several reasons including legal social libidinal emotional financial spiritual and religious purposes Whom they marry may be influenced by socially determined rules of incest prescriptive marriage rules parental choice and individual desire In some areas of the world arranged marriage child marriage polygamy and sometimes forced marriage may be practiced as a cultural tradition Conversely such practices may be outlawed and penalized in parts of the world out of concerns for women s rights and because of international law In developed parts of the world there has been a general trend towards ensuring equal rights within marriage for women and legally recognizing the marriages of interfaith and same sex couples Often these trends have been motivated by a desire to establish equality and uphold human rights Marriage can be recognized by a state an organization a religious authority a tribal group a local community or peers It is often viewed as a contract Civil marriage which does not exist in some countries is marriage without religious content carried out by a government institution in accordance with the marriage laws of the jurisdiction and recognised as creating the rights and obligations intrinsic to matrimony Marriages can be performed in a secular civil ceremony or in a religious setting via a wedding ceremony The act of marriage usually creates normative or legal obligations between the individuals involved and any offspring they may produce In terms of legal recognition most sovereign states and other jurisdictions limit marriage to opposite sex couples and a diminishing number of these permit polygyny child marriages and forced marriages Over the twentieth century a growing number of countries and other jurisdictions have lifted bans on and have established legal recognition for interracial marriage interfaith marriage and most recently same sex marriage Some cultures allow the dissolution of marriage through divorce or annulment In some areas child marriages and polygamy may occur in spite of national laws against the practice Since the late twentieth century major social changes in Western countries have led to changes in the demographics of marriage with the age of first marriage increasing fewer people marrying and more couples choosing to cohabit rather than marry For example the number of marriages in Europe decreased by from to Historically in most cultures married women had very few rights of their own being considered along with the family s children the property of the husband as such they could not own or inherit property or represent themselves legally see for example coverture In Europe the United States and other places in the developed world beginning in the late th century and lasting through the st century marriage has undergone gradual legal changes aimed at improving the rights of the wife These changes included giving wives legal identities of their own abolishing the right of husbands to physically discipline their wives giving wives property rights liberalizing divorce laws providing wives with reproductive rights of their own and requiring a wife s consent when sexual relations occur These changes have occurred primarily in Western countries In the st century there continue to be controversies regarding the legal status of married women legal acceptance of or leniency towards violence within marriage especially sexual violence traditional marriage customs such as dowry and bride price forced marriage marriageable age and criminalization of consensual behaviors such as premarital and extramarital sex Contents Etymology Definitions Relation recognized by custom or law Legitimacy of offspring Collection of rights Right of sexual access Types of marriage Monogamy Serial monogamy Polygamy Polygyny Polyandry Plural marriage Child marriage Same sex and third gender marriages Temporary marriages Cohabitation Partner selection Social status The incest taboo exogamy and endogamy Prescriptive marriage Forced marriage Companionate marriage Economic considerations Dowry Dower Bridewealth Taxation Post marital residence Marriage law Rights and obligations Property regime Marriage restrictions Age Race Same sex marriage recognition Number of spouses in a marriage State recognition Marriage license civil ceremony and registration Common law marriage Civil unions "Marriage of convenience" Contemporary legal and human rights criticisms of marriage Power and gender roles Sex outside of marriage Marriage and sexual violence Marriage laws human rights and the global status of women Dowry and bridewealth Children born outside marriage Marriage and religion Abrahamic religions Bahá í Christianity Christian attitudes to same sex marriage Islam Judaism Hinduism Buddhism Sikhism Wicca Marriage and health Divorce and annulment History of marriage Ancient world Europe China See also References External links EtymologyThe word "marriage" derives from Middle English mariage which first appears in – CE This in turn is derived from Old French marier to marry and ultimately Latin maritare meaning to provide with a husband or wife and maritari meaning to get married The adjective marit us a um meaning matrimonial or nuptial could also be used in the masculine form as a noun for "husband" and in the feminine form for "wife" The related word "matrimony" derives from the Old French word matremoine which appears around CE and ultimately derives from Latin matrimonium which combines the two concepts mater meaning "mother" and the suffix monium signifying "action state or condition" DefinitionsAnthropologists have proposed several competing definitions of marriage in an attempt to encompass the wide variety of marital practices observed across cultures Even within Western culture "definitions of marriage have careened from one extreme to another and everywhere in between" as Evan Gerstmann has put it Relation recognized by custom or lawIn The History of Human Marriage Edvard Westermarck defined marriage as "a more or less durable connection between male and female lasting beyond the mere act of propagation till after the birth of the offspring " In The Future of Marriage in Western Civilization he rejected his earlier definition instead provisionally defining marriage as "a relation of one or more men to one or more women that is recognized by custom or law" Legitimacy of offspringThe anthropological handbook Notes and Queries defined marriage as "a union between a man and a woman such that children born to the woman are the recognized legitimate offspring of both partners " In recognition of a practice by the Nuer people of Sudan allowing women to act as a husband in certain circumstances the Ghost marriage Kathleen Gough suggested modifying this to "a woman and one or more other persons " In an analysis of marriage among the Nayar a polyandrous society in India Gough found that the group lacked a husband role in the conventional sense that unitary role in the west was divided between a non resident "social father" of the woman s children and her lovers who were the actual procreators None of these men had legal rights to the woman s child This forced Gough to disregard sexual access as a key element of marriage and to define it in terms of legitimacy of offspring alone marriage is "a relationship established between a woman and one or more other persons which provides a child born to the woman under circumstances not prohibited by the rules of relationship is accorded full birth status rights common to normal members of his society or social stratum " Economic anthropologist Duran Bell has criticized the legitimacy based definition on the basis that some societies do not require marriage for legitimacy He argued that a legitimacy based definition of marriage is circular in societies where illegitimacy has no other legal or social implications for a child other than the mother being unmarried Collection of rightsEdmund Leach criticized Gough s definition for being too restrictive in terms of recognized legitimate offspring and suggested that marriage be viewed in terms of the different types of rights it serves to establish In article in Man Leach argued that no one definition of marriage applied to all cultures He offered a list of ten rights associated with marriage including sexual monopoly and rights with respect to children with specific rights differing across cultures Those rights according to Leach included "To establish a legal father of a woman s children To establish a legal mother of a man s children To give the husband a monopoly in the wife s sexuality To give the wife a monopoly in the husband s sexuality To give the husband partial or monopolistic rights to the wife s domestic and other labour services To give the wife partial or monopolistic rights to the husband s domestic and other labour services To give the husband partial or total control over property belonging or potentially accruing to the wife To give the wife partial or total control over property belonging or potentially accruing to the husband To establish a joint fund of property – a partnership – for the benefit of the children of the marriage To establish a socially significant relationship of affinity between the husband and his wife s brothers " Right of sexual accessIn a article in Current Anthropology Duran Bell describes marriage as "a relationship between one or more men male or female in severalty to one or more women that provides those men with a demand right of sexual access within a domestic group and identifies women who bear the obligation of yielding to the demands of those specific men " In referring to "men in severalty" Bell is referring to corporate kin groups such as lineages which in having paid brideprice retain a right in a woman s offspring even if her husband a lineage member deceases Levirate marriage In referring to "men male or female " Bell is referring to women within the lineage who may stand in as the "social fathers" of the wife s children born of other lovers See Nuer "Ghost marriage" Types of marriageMonogamyMain article Monogamy Monogamy is a form of marriage in which an individual has only one spouse during their lifetime or at any one time serial monogamy Anthropologist Jack Goody s comparative study of marriage around the world utilizing the Ethnographic Atlas found a strong correlation between intensive plough agriculture dowry and monogamy This pattern was found in a broad swath of Eurasian societies from Japan to Ireland The majority of Sub Saharan African societies that practice extensive hoe agriculture in contrast show a correlation between "Bride price " and polygamy A further study drawing on the Ethnographic Atlas showed a statistical correlation between increasing size of the society the belief in "high gods" to support human morality and monogamy In the countries which do not permit polygamy a person who marries in one of those countries a person while still being lawfully married to another commits the crime of bigamy In all cases the second marriage is considered legally null and void Besides the second and subsequent marriages being void the bigamist is also liable to other penalties which also vary between jurisdictions Serial monogamyGovernments that support monogamy may allow easy divorce In a number of Western countries divorce rates approach Those who remarry do so on average times citation needed Divorce and remarriage can thus result in "serial monogamy" i e multiple marriages but only one legal spouse at a time This can be interpreted as a form of plural mating as are those societies dominated by female headed families in the Caribbean Mauritius and Brazil where there is frequent rotation of unmarried partners In all these account for to of the "monogamous" category Serial monogamy creates a new kind of relative the "ex " The "ex wife" for example remains an active part of her "ex husband s" life as they may be tied together by transfers of resources alimony child support or shared child custody Bob Simpson notes that in the British case serial monogamy creates an "extended family" – a number of households tied together in this way including mobile children possible ex s may include an ex wife an ex brother in law etc but not an "ex child" These "unclear families" do not fit the mould of the monogamous nuclear family As a series of connected households they come to resemble the polygynous model of separate households maintained by mothers with children tied by a male to whom they are married or divorced PolygamyMain article Polygamy Polygamy is a marriage which includes more than two partners When a man is married to more than one wife at a time the relationship is called polygyny and there is no marriage bond between the wives and when a woman is married to more than one husband at a time it is called polyandry and there is no marriage bond between the husbands If a marriage includes multiple husbands and wives it can be called group marriage A molecular genetic study of global human genetic diversity argued that sexual polygyny was typical of human reproductive patterns until the shift to sedentary farming communities approximately to years ago in Europe and Asia and more recently in Africa and the Americas As noted above Anthropologist Jack Goody s comparative study of marriage around the world utilizing the Ethnographic Atlas found that the majority of Sub Saharan African societies that practice extensive hoe agriculture show a correlation between "Bride price " and polygamy A survey of other cross cultural samples has confirmed that the absence of the plough was the only predictor of polygamy although other factors such as high male mortality in warfare in non state societies and pathogen stress in state societies had some impact Marriages are classified according to the number of legal spouses an individual has The suffix " gamy" refers specifically to the number of spouses as in bi gamy two spouses generally illegal in most nations and poly gamy more than one spouse Societies show variable acceptance of polygamy as a cultural ideal and practice According to the Ethnographic Atlas of societies noted were monogamous had occasional polygyny had more frequent polygyny and had polyandry However as Miriam Zeitzen writes social tolerance for polygamy is different from the practice of polygamy since it requires wealth to establish multiple households for multiple wives The actual practice of polygamy in a tolerant society may actually be low with the majority of aspirant polygamists practicing monogamous marriage Tracking the occurrence of polygamy is further complicated in jurisdictions where it has been banned but continues to be practiced de facto polygamy Zeitzen also notes that Western perceptions of African society and marriage patterns are biased by "contradictory concerns of nostalgia for traditional African culture versus critique of polygamy as oppressive to women or detrimental to development " Polygamy has been condemned as being a form of human rights abuse with concerns arising over domestic abuse forced marriage and neglect The vast majority of the world s countries including virtually all of the world s developed nations do not permit polygamy There have been calls for the abolition of polygamy in developing countries PolygynyAlthough a society may be classified as polygynous not all marriages in it necessarily are monogamous marriages may in fact predominate It is to this flexibility that Anthropologist Robin Fox attributes its success as a social support system "This has often meant – given the imbalance in the sex ratios the higher male infant mortality the shorter life span of males the loss of males in wartime etc – that often women were left without financial support from husbands To correct this condition females had to be killed at birth remain single become prostitutes or be siphoned off into celibate religious orders Polygynous systems have the advantage that they can promise as did the Mormons a home and family for every woman " Nonetheless polygyny is a gender issue which offers men asymmetrical benefits In some cases there is a large age discrepancy as much as a generation between a man and his youngest wife compounding the power differential between the two Tensions not only exist between genders but also within genders senior and junior men compete for wives and senior and junior wives in the same household may experience radically different life conditions and internal hierarchy Several studies have suggested that the wive s relationship with other women including co wives and husband s female kin are more critical relationships than that with her husband for her productive reproductive and personal achievement In some societies the co wives are relatives usually sisters a practice called sororal polygyny the pre existing relationship between the co wives is thought to decrease potential tensions within the marriage Fox argues that "the major difference between polygyny and monogamy could be stated thus while plural mating occurs in both systems under polygyny several unions may be recognized as being legal marriages while under monogamy only one of the unions is so recognized Often however it is difficult to draw a hard and fast line between the two " As polygamy in Africa is increasingly subject to legal limitations a variant form of de facto as opposed to legal or de jure polygyny is being practised in urban centres Although it does not involve multiple now illegal formal marriages the domestic and personal arrangements follow old polygynous patterns The de facto form of polygyny is found in other parts of the world as well including some Mormon sects and Muslim families in the United States In some societies such as the Lovedu of South Africa or the Nuer of the Sudan aristocratic women may become female husbands In the Lovedu case this female husband may take a number of polygamous wives This is not a lesbian relationship but a means of legitimately expanding a royal lineage by attaching these wives children to it The relationships are considered polygynous not polyandrous because the female husband is in fact assuming masculine gendered political roles Religious groups have differing views on the legitimacy of polygyny It is allowed in Islam and Confucianism though in most areas today it is uncommon Judaism Christianity and Hinduism have allowed polygyny in the past but it is prohibited today PolyandryMain articles Polyandry Polyandry in Tibet and Polyandry in India Polyandry is notably more rare than polygyny though less rare than the figure commonly cited in the Ethnographic Atlas which listed only those polyandrous societies found in the Himalayan Mountains More recent studies have found societies outside the found in the Himalayans which practice polyandry It is most common in egalitarian societies marked by high male mortality or male absenteeism It is associated with partible paternity the cultural belief that a child can have more than one father The explanation for polyandry in the Himalayan Mountains is related to the scarcity of land the marriage of all brothers in a family to the same wife fraternal polyandry allows family land to remain intact and undivided If every brother married separately and had children family land would be split into unsustainable small plots In Europe this was prevented through the social practice of impartible inheritance the dis inheriting of most siblings some of whom went on to become celibate monks and priests Plural marriageGroup marriage also known as multi lateral marriage is a form of polyamory in which more than two persons form a family unit with all the members of the group marriage being considered to be married to all the other members of the group marriage and all members of the marriage share parental responsibility for any children arising from the marriage No country legally condones group marriages neither under the law nor as a common law marriage but historically it has been practiced by some cultures of Polynesia Asia Papua New Guinea and the Americas – as well as in some intentional communities and alternative subcultures such as the Oneida Perfectionists in up state New York Of the societies reported by the American anthropologist George P Murdock in only the Caingang of Brazil had any group marriages at all Child marriageMain article Child marriage A child marriage is a marriage where one or both spouses are under the age of It is related to child betrothal and teenage pregnancy Child marriage was common throughout history even up until the s in the United States where in CE in the state of Delaware the age of consent for marriage was years old Today it is condemned by international human rights organizations Child marriages are often arranged between the families of the future bride and groom sometimes as soon as the girl is born However in the late s in England and the United States feminist activists began calling for raised age of consent laws which was eventually handled in the s having been raised to Child marriages can also occur in the context of marriage by abduction In the year CE John Somerford and Jane Somerford Brereton were both married at the ages of and respectively Twelve years later in John filed for divorce While child marriage is observed for both boys and girls the overwhelming majority of child spouses are girls In many cases only one marriage partner is a child usually the female due to the importance placed upon female virginity Causes of child marriage include poverty bride price dowry laws that allow child marriages religious and social pressures regional customs fear of remaining unmarried and perceived inability of women to work for money Today child marriages are widespread in parts of the world being most common in South Asia and sub Saharan Africa with more than half of the girls in some countries in those regions being married before The incidence of child marriage has been falling in most parts of the world In developed countries child marriage is outlawed or restricted Girls who marry before are at greater risk of becoming victims of domestic violence than those who marry later especially when they are married to a much older man Same sex and third gender marriagesMain articles Same sex marriage and History of same sex unions As noted above several kinds of same gendered non sexual marriages exist in some lineage based societies this section relates to same gendered sexual unions Some cultures include third gender two spirited or transgendered individuals such as the berdache of the Zuni in New Mexico We wha one of the most revered Zuni elders an Ihamana spiritual leader served as an emissary of the Zuni to Washington where he met President Grover Cleveland We wha had a husband who was generally recognized as such While it is a relatively new practice to grant same sex couples the same form of legal marital recognition as commonly granted to mixed sex couples there is some history of recorded same sex unions around the world Ancient Greek same sex relationships were like modern companionate marriages unlike their different sex marriages in which the spouses had few emotional ties and the husband had freedom to engage in outside sexual liaisons The Theodosian Code C Th issued in CE imposed severe penalties or death on same sex relationships but the exact intent of the law and its relation to social practice is unclear as only a few examples of same sex marriage in that culture exist Same sex unions were celebrated in some regions of China such as Fujian Temporary marriagesSeveral cultures have practiced temporary and conditional marriages Examples include the Celtic practice of handfasting and fixed term marriages in the Muslim community Pre Islamic Arabs practiced a form of temporary marriage that carries on today in the practice of Nikah Mut ah a fixed term marriage contract The Islamic prophet Muhammad sanctioned a temporary marriage – sigheh in Iran and muta a in Iraq – which can provide a legitimizing cover for sex workers The same forms of temporary marriage have been used in Egypt Lebanon and Iran to make the donation of a human ova legal for in vitro fertilization a woman cannot however use this kind of marriage to obtain a sperm donation Muslim controversies related to Nikah Mut ah have resulted in the practice being confined mostly to Shi ite communities The matrilineal Mosuo of China practice what they call "walking marriage" CohabitationSee also Cohabitation and Common law marriage In some jurisdictions cohabitation in certain circumstances may constitute a common law marriage an unregistered partnership or otherwise provide the unmarried partners with various rights and responsibilities and in some countries the laws recognize cohabitation in lieu of institutional marriage for taxation and social security benefits This is the case for example in Australia Cohabitation may be an option pursued as a form of resistance to traditional institutionalized marriage However in this context some nations reserve the right to define the relationship as marital or otherwise to regulate the relation even if the relation has not been registered with the state or a religious institution Conversely institutionalized marriages may not involve cohabitation In some cases couples living together do not wish to be recognized as married This may occur because pension or alimony rights are adversely affected because of taxation considerations because of immigration issues or for other reasons Such marriages have also been increasingly common in Beijing Guo Jianmei director of the center for women s studies at Beijing University told a Newsday correspondent "Walking marriages reflect sweeping changes in Chinese society " A "walking marriage" refers to a type of temporary marriage formed by the Mosuo of China in which male partners live elsewhere and make nightly visits A similar arrangement in Saudi Arabia called misyar marriage also involves the husband and wife living separately but meeting regularly Partner selectionThere is wide cross cultural variation in the social rules governing the selection of a partner for marriage There is variation in the degree to which partner selection is an individual decision by the partners or a collective decision by the partners kin groups and there is variation in the rules regulating which partners are valid choices The United Nations World Fertility Report of reports that of all people get married before age forty nine The percent of women and men who marry before age forty nine drops to nearly in some nations and reaches in other nations In other cultures with less strict rules governing the groups from which a partner can be chosen the selection of a marriage partner may involve either the couple going through a selection process of courtship or the marriage may be arranged by the couple s parents or an outside party a matchmaker Social statusSome people want to marry a person with higher or lower status than them Others want to marry people who have similar status In many societies women marry men who are of higher social status There are marriages where each party has sought a partner of similar status There are other marriages in which the man is older than the woman The incest taboo exogamy and endogamyFurther information Cousin marriage Affinity canon law and Avunculate marriage Societies have often placed restrictions on marriage to relatives though the degree of prohibited relationship varies widely Marriages between parents and children or between full siblings with few exceptions have been considered incest and forbidden However marriages between more distant relatives have been much more common with one estimate being that of all marriages in history have been between second cousins or closer This proportion has fallen dramatically but still more than of all marriages are believed to be between first and second cousins In the United States such marriages are now highly stigmatized and laws ban most or all first cousin marriage in states Specifics vary in South Korea historically it was illegal to marry someone with the same last name and same ancestral line An Avunculate marriage is a marriage that occurs between an uncle and his niece or between an aunt and her nephew Such marriages are illegal in most countries due to incest restrictions However a small number of countries have legalized it including Argentina Australia Austria Malaysia and Russia Family chart showing relatives who in Islamic Sharia law would be considered mahrim or maharem unmarriageable kin with whom sexual intercourse would be considered incestuous In various societies the choice of partner is often limited to suitable persons from specific social groups In some societies the rule is that a partner is selected from an individual s own social group – endogamy this is often the case in class and caste based societies But in other societies a partner must be chosen from a different group than one s own – exogamy this may be the case in societies practicing totemic religion where society is divided into several exogamous totemic clans such as most Aboriginal Australian societies In other societies a person is expected to marry their cross cousin a woman must marry her father s sister s son and a man must marry his mother s brother s daughter – this is often the case if either a society has a rule of tracing kinship exclusively through patrilineal or matrilineal descent groups as among the Akan people of West Africa Another kind of marriage selection is the levirate marriage in which widows are obligated to marry their husband s brother mostly found in societies where kinship is based on endogamous clan groups Religion has commonly weighed in on the matter of which relatives if any are allowed to marry Relations may be by consanguinity or affinity meaning by blood or by marriage On the marriage of cousins Catholic policy has evolved from initial acceptance through a long period of general prohibition to the contemporary requirement for a dispensation Islam has always allowed it while Hindu strictures vary widely Prescriptive marriageMain article Arranged marriage An arranged marriage between Louis XIV of France and Maria Theresa of Spain In a wide array of lineage based societies with a classificatory kinship system potential spouses are sought from a specific class of relative as determined by a prescriptive marriage rule This rule may be expressed by anthropologists using a "descriptive" kinship term such as a "man s mother s brother s daughter" also known as a "cross cousin" Such descriptive rules mask the participant s perspective a man should marry a woman from his mother s lineage Within the society s kinship terminology such relatives are usually indicated by a specific term which sets them apart as potentially marriageable Pierre Bourdieu notes however that very few marriages ever follow the rule and that when they do so it is for "practical kinship" reasons such as the preservation of family property rather than the "official kinship" ideology Insofar as regular marriages following prescriptive rules occur lineages are linked together in fixed relationships these ties between lineages may form political alliances in kinship dominated societies French structural anthropologist Claude Lévi Strauss developed alliance theory to account for the "elementary" kinship structures created by the limited number of prescriptive marriage rules possible A pragmatic or arranged marriage is made easier by formal procedures of family or group politics A responsible authority sets up or encourages the marriage they may indeed engage a professional matchmaker to find a suitable spouse for an unmarried person The authority figure could be parents family a religious official or a group consensus In some cases the authority figure may choose a match for purposes other than marital harmony citation needed Forced marriageMain article Forced marriage Criticism about the Azeri society tradition from domestic violence to the social and political participation of women in the communityA forced marriage is a marriage in which one or both of the parties is married against their will Forced marriages continue to be practiced in parts of the world especially in South Asia and Africa The line between forced marriage and consensual marriage may become blurred because the social norms of these cultures dictate that one should never oppose the desire of one s parents relatives in regard to the choice of a spouse in such cultures it is not necessary for violence threats intimidation etc to occur the person simply "consents" to the marriage even if he she doesn t want it out of the implied social pressure and duty The customs of bride price and dowry that exist in parts of the world can lead to buying and selling people into marriage In some societies ranging from Central Asia to the Caucasus to Africa the custom of bride kidnapping still exists in which a woman is captured by a man and his friends Sometimes this covers an elopement but sometimes it depends on sexual violence In previous times raptio was a larger scale version of this with groups of women captured by groups of men sometimes in war the most famous example is The Rape of the Sabine Women which provided the first citizens of Rome with their wives Other marriage partners are more or less imposed on an individual For example widow inheritance provides a widow with another man from her late husband s brothers In rural areas of India child marriage is practiced with parents often arranging the wedding sometimes even before the child is born This practice was made illegal under the Child Marriage Restraint Act of Companionate marriageMain article Love marriage Eva Illouz argues that the "love" companionate marriage emerged at the same time as the rise of capitalism in European and American society "Love" is not the raw emotion that Western representations make it out to be but a cultural construction shaped by the social and economic conditions of modern industrial society Industrialization weakened the ties between extended families and made the nuclear family the norm In this view love is a culturally constructed label for physiological arousal that is shrouded in cultural symbols that situate the emerging relationship within a particular set of cultural expectations – one of which leads to marriage as an institution These cultural expectations are shaped by a number of cultural industries such as advertising film and television and the "wedding industry" Until the turn of the twentieth century marriage was viewed as one of the most important financial decisions of one s life determined in large part by property transfers such as dowry or dower and romantic love was viewed as disruptive of the rational economic decision making needed Under the development of capitalism this changed Romantic love then precedes capitalism per se but articulates two leitmotifs that will later resonate with capitalism s central ideological themes One concerns the sovereignty of the individual vis à vis the group such sovereignty being affirmed in illicit sexual choices and in the lovers refusal to conform to the rules of endogamy set by the group The other concerns the distinction central to bourgeois ideology between interest and sentiments selfishness and selflessness embodied respectively in the public and private spheres In this division romantic love asserts the privilege of sentiments over social and economic interests of gratuity over profit of abundance over the deprivations caused by accumulation In proclaiming the supremacy of human relationships governed by the disinterested gift of oneself love not only celebrates the fusion of individual souls and bodies but also opens the possibility of an alternative social order Love thus projects an aura of transgression and both promises and demands a better world Economic considerationsSee also Economics of marriage and Family economics The financial aspects of marriage vary between cultures and have changed over time In some cultures dowries and bridewealth continue to be required today In both cases the financial arrangements are usually made between the groom or his family and the bride s family with the bride often not being involved in the negotiations and often not having a choice in whether to participate in the marriage In Early Modern Britain the social status of the couple was supposed to be equal After the marriage all the property called "fortune" and expected inheritances of the wife belonged to the husband DowryMain article Dowry A dowry is "a process whereby parental property is distributed to a daughter at her marriage i e inter vivos rather than at the holder s death mortis causa … A dowry establishes some variety of conjugal fund the nature of which may vary widely This fund ensures her support or endowment in widowhood and eventually goes to provide for her sons and daughters " In some cultures especially in South Asia in countries such as India Bangladesh Pakistan Sri Lanka and Nepal dowries continue to be expected In India nearly women were killed in over dowries and activists believe that figures represent a third of the actual number of such murders Dowry related violence is a problem in several places see dowry deaths and

in response to violent incidents regarding the practice several jurisdictions have enacted laws restricting or banning dowry see Dowry law in India In Nepal dowry has been made illegal in Some authors believe that the giving and receiving of dowry reflects the status and even the effort to climb high in social hierarchy DowerMain articles Bride price and Dower Direct Dowry contrasts with bridewealth which is paid by the groom or his family to the bride s parents and with indirect dowry or dower which is property given to the bride herself by the groom at the time of marriage and which remains under her ownership and control In the Jewish tradition the rabbis in ancient times insisted on the marriage couple entering into a prenuptial agreement called a ketubah Besides other things the ketubah provided for an amount to be paid by the husband in the event of a divorce or his estate in the event of his death This amount was a replacement of the biblical dower or bride price which was payable at the time of the marriage by the groom to the father of the bride Exodus – This innovation was put in place because the biblical bride price created a major social problem many young prospective husbands could not raise the bride price at the time when they would normally be expected to marry So to enable these young men to marry the rabbis in effect delayed the time that the amount would be payable when they would be more likely to have the sum It may also be noted that both the dower and the ketubah amounts served the same purpose the protection for the wife should her support cease either by death or divorce The only difference between the two systems was the timing of the payment It is the predecessor to the wife s present day entitlement to maintenance in the event of the breakup of marriage and family maintenance in the event of the husband not providing adequately for the wife in his will Another function performed by the ketubah amount was to provide a disincentive for the husband contemplating divorcing his wife he would need to have the amount to be able to pay to the wife Morning gifts which might also be arranged by the bride s father rather than the bride are given to the bride herself the name derives from the Germanic tribal custom of giving them the morning after the wedding night She might have control of this morning gift during the lifetime of her husband but is entitled to it when widowed If the amount of her inheritance is settled by law rather than agreement it may be called dower Depending on legal systems and the exact arrangement she may not be entitled to dispose of it after her death and may lose the property if she remarries Morning gifts were preserved for centuries in morganatic marriage a union where the wife s inferior social status was held to prohibit her children from inheriting a noble s titles or estates In this case the morning gift would support the wife and children Another legal provision for widowhood was jointure in which property often land would be held in joint tenancy so that it would automatically go to the widow on her husband s death Islamic tradition has similar practices A mahr either immediate or deferred is the woman s portion of the groom s wealth divorce or estate death These amounts are usually set on the basis of the groom s own and family wealth and incomes but in some parts these are set very high so as to provide a disincentive for the groom exercising the divorce or the husband s family inheriting a large portion of the estate especially if there are no male offspring from the marriage In some countries including Iran the mahr or alimony can amount to more than a man can ever hope to earn sometimes up to US official Iranian gold coins If the husband cannot pay the mahr either in case of a divorce or on demand according to the current laws in Iran he will have to pay it by installments Failure to pay the mahr might even lead to imprisonment BridewealthMain article Bride price Traditional formal presentation of the bridewealth also known as "sin sot" at an engagement ceremony in ThailandBridewealth is a common practice in parts of South East Asia Thailand Cambodia parts of Central Asia and in much of sub Saharan Africa It is also known as brideprice although this has fallen in disfavor as it implies the purchase of the bride Bridewealth is the amount of money or property or wealth paid by the groom or his family to the parents of a woman upon the marriage of their daughter to the groom In anthropological literature bride price has often been explained as payment made to compensate the bride s family for the loss of her labor and fertility In some cases bridewealth is a means by which the groom s family s ties to the children of the union are recognized TaxationIn some countries a married person or couple benefits from various taxation advantages not available to a single person For example spouses may be allowed to average their combined incomes This is advantageous to a married couple with disparate incomes To compensate for this countries may provide a higher tax bracket for the averaged income of a married couple While income averaging might still benefit a married couple with a stay at home spouse such averaging would cause a married couple with roughly equal personal incomes to pay more total tax than they would as two single persons In the United States this is called the marriage penalty citation needed When the rates applied by the tax code are not based income averaging but rather on the sum of individuals incomes higher rates will usually apply to each individual in a two earner households in a progressive tax systems This is most often the case with high income taxpayers and is another situation called a marriage penalty citation needed Conversely when progressive tax is levied on the individual with no consideration for the partnership dual income couples fare much better than single income couples with similar household incomes The effect can be increased when the welfare system treats the same income as a shared income thereby denying welfare access to the non earning spouse Such systems apply in Australia and Canada for example citation needed Post marital residenceIn many Western cultures marriage usually leads to the formation of a new household comprising the married couple with the married couple living together in the same home often sharing the same bed but in some other cultures this is not the tradition Among the Minangkabau of West Sumatra residency after marriage is matrilocal with the husband moving into the household of his wife s mother Residency after marriage can also be patrilocal or avunculocal In these cases married couples may not form an independent household but remain part of an extended family household Early theories explaining the determinants of postmarital residence connected it with the sexual division of labor However to date cross cultural tests of this hypothesis using worldwide samples have failed to find any significant relationship between these two variables However Korotayev s tests show that the female contribution to subsistence does correlate significantly with matrilocal residence in general However this correlation is masked by a general polygyny factor Although an increase in the female contribution to subsistence tends to lead to matrilocal residence it also tends simultaneously to lead to general non sororal polygyny which effectively destroys matrilocality If this polygyny factor is controlled e g through a multiple regression model division of labor turns out to be a significant predictor of postmarital residence Thus Murdock s hypotheses regarding the relationships between the sexual division of labor and postmarital residence were basically correct though the actual relationships between those two groups of variables are more complicated than he expected There has been a trend toward the neolocal residence in western societies Marriage lawFamily law Family Marriage and other equivalent or similar unions and status Marriage Types of marriages Prenuptial agreement Cohabitation Civil union Domestic partnership Validity of marriages Void and Voidable marriages Annulment Dissolution of marriages Divorce Adultery Grounds for divorce No fault divorce Matrimonial Causes Act Legal separation Alimony Parenting plan Residence UK E W and NI Parental rights Custody Evaluator U S Parenting coordinator U S Other issues Paternity Legitimacy Child custody Legal guardian Adoption Child support Contact Visitation CAFCASS UK E W Grandparent visitation U N Rights of the Child Children s rights Emancipation Foster care Ward Parental child abduction Private international law Private international law Divorce Marriage Hague Convention adoption International child abduction Hague Convention child abduction The Family and the Criminal Code or Criminal Law Paternity fraud Bigamy CPS U S Child abuse Domestic violence Incest Child selling v t e Main article Marriage law Marriage laws refer to the legal requirements which determine the validity of a marriage which vary considerably between countries Rights and obligationsSee also Matrimonial regime and Rights and responsibilities of marriages in the United States A marriage bestows rights and obligations on the married parties and sometimes on relatives as well being the sole mechanism for the creation of affinal ties in laws These may include depending on jurisdiction Giving a husband wife or his her family control over a spouse s sexual services labor and property Giving a husband wife responsibility for a spouse s debts Giving a husband wife visitation rights when his her spouse is incarcerated or hospitalized Giving a husband wife control over his her spouse s affairs when the spouse is incapacitated Establishing the second legal guardian of a parent s child Establishing a joint fund of property for the benefit of children Establishing a relationship between the families of the spouses These rights and obligations vary considerably between societies and between groups within society These might include arranged marriages family obligations the legal establishment of a nuclear family unit the legal protection of children and public declaration of commitment Property regimeIn many countries today each marriage partner has the choice of keeping his or her property separate or combining properties In the latter case called community property when the marriage ends by divorce each owns half In lieu of a will or trust property owned by the deceased generally is inherited by the surviving spouse In some legal systems the partners in a marriage are "jointly liable" for the debts of the marriage This has a basis in a traditional legal notion called the "Doctrine of Necessities" whereby a husband was responsible to provide necessary things for his wife Where this is the case one partner may be sued to collect a debt for which they did not expressly contract Critics of this practice note that debt collection agencies can abuse this by claiming an unreasonably wide range of debts to be expenses of the marriage The cost of defense and the burden of proof is then placed on the non contracting party to prove that the expense is not a debt of the family The respective maintenance obligations both during and eventually after a marriage are regulated in most jurisdictions alimony is one such method Marriage restrictionsMarriage is an institution that is historically filled with restrictions From age to race to social status to consanguinity to gender restrictions are placed on marriage by society for reasons of benefiting the children passing on healthy genes maintaining cultural values or because of prejudice and fear Almost all cultures that recognize marriage also recognize adultery as a violation of the terms of marriage AgeMost jurisdictions set a minimum age for marriage that is a person must attain a certain age to be legally allowed to marry This age may depend on circumstances for instance exceptions from the general rule may be permitted if the parents of a young person express their consent and or if a court decides that said marriage is in the best interest of the young person often this applies in cases where a girl is pregnant Although most age restrictions are in place in order to prevent children from being forced into marriages especially to much older partners – marriages which can have negative education and health related consequences and lead to child sexual abuse and other forms of violence – such child marriages remain common in parts of the world According to the UN child marriages are most common in rural sub Saharan Africa and South Asia The ten countries with the highest rates of child marriage are Niger Chad Central African Republic Bangladesh Guinea Mozambique Mali Burkina Faso South Sudan and Malawi Race U S States by the date of repeal of anti miscegenation laws No laws passed Repealed before Repealed between and Overturned on June Main article Interracial marriage Laws banning "race mixing" were enforced in certain North American jurisdictions from until in Nazi Germany The Nuremberg Laws from until and in South Africa during most part of the Apartheid era – All these laws primarily banned marriage between persons of different racially or ethnically defined groups which was termed "amalgamation" or "miscegenation" in the U S The laws in Nazi Germany and many of the U S states as well as South Africa also banned sexual relations between such individuals In the United States laws in some but not all of the states prohibited the marriage of whites and blacks and in many states also the intermarriage of whites with Native Americans or Asians In the U S such laws were known as anti miscegenation laws From until out of the then states enforced such laws Although an "Anti Miscegenation Amendment" to the United States Constitution was proposed in in – and in no nationwide law against racially mixed marriages was ever enacted In the United States Supreme Court unanimously ruled in Loving v Virginia that anti miscegenation laws are unconstitutional With this ruling these laws were no longer in effect in the remaining states that still had them The Nazi ban on interracial marriage and interracial sex was enacted in September as part of the Nuremberg Laws the Gesetz zum Schutze des deutschen Blutes und der deutschen Ehre The Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honour The Nuremberg Laws classified Jews as a race and forbade marriage and extramarital sexual relations at first with people of Jewish descent but was later ended to the "Gypsies Negroes or their bastard offspring" and people of "German or related blood" Such relations were marked as Rassenschande lit "race disgrace" and could be punished by imprisonment usually followed by deportation to a concentration camp and even by death South Africa under apartheid also banned interracial marriage The Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act of prohibited marriage between persons of different races and the Immorality Act of made sexual relations with a person of a different race a criminal offence Same sex marriage recognition Marriage open to same sex couples ring individual cases Recognized when performed in certain other jurisdictions ring individual cases Government court announced intention to recognize Federal recognition of marriages at the state level Civil unions Unregistered cohabitation Same sex unions not legally recognized Colors higher in the list override those lower down Includes laws that haven t gone into effect Main article Same sex marriage The first laws in modern times recognizing same sex marriage were enacted during the first decade of the st century As of July eighteen countries Argentina Belgium Brazil Canada Denmark France Iceland Luxembourg the Netherlands New Zealand Norway Portugal South Africa Spain Sweden the United Kingdom the United States and Uruguay and several sub national jurisdictions parts of Mexico allow same sex couples to marry Finland has enacted a law to legalize same sex marriage which will come into force in March Bills allowing legal recognition of same sex marriage have been proposed are pending or have passed at least one legislative house in Austria Australia Chile Germany Ireland Slovenia Switzerland Taiwan and Venezuela as well as in the legislatures of several sub national jurisdictions parts of Australia Mexico and the United States Introduction of same sex marriage laws has varied by jurisdiction being variously accomplished through a legislative change to marriage laws a court ruling based on constitutional guarantees of equality or by direct popular vote via a ballot initiative or a referendum The recognition of same sex marriage is a political social civil rights and religious issue in many nations and debates continue to arise over whether same sex couples should be allowed marriage be required to hold a different status a civil union or be denied recognition of such rights Allowing same gender couples to legally marry is considered to be one of the most important of all LGBT rights It is a relatively new practice that same sex couples are being granted the same form of legal marital recognition available to mixed sexed couples In the United States the Defense of Marriage Act DOMA explicitly defined marriage for the purposes of federal law as between a man and a woman and allowed states to ignore same sex marriages from other states Section of the law which prevented the Federal Government from recognizing same sex marriage was struck down in United States v Windsor Section which allows states to not recognize same sex marriage in other states was still in effect In June the Supreme Court ruled that all states would have to grant marriage status to same sex couples Number of spouses in a marriage Polygamy permitted and practiced Legal status unknown or ambiguous Polygamy generally illegal but practice not fully criminalised Polygamy fully outlawed abolished and practice fully criminalised Notes India Singapore and Sri Lanka illegal in all forms except for Muslims Federal Eritrea law bans polygamous marriage but certain countries and regions with Sharia allow it Muslims only may legally contract polygamous marriages Mauritius polygamous unions are not legally recognized Muslim men may "marry" up to four women who do not however enjoy the legal status of wives Main article Legal status of polygamy Polygyny is widely practiced in mostly Muslim and African countries In the Middle Eastern region Israel Turkey and Tunisia are notable exceptions In most other jurisdictions polygamy is illegal For example In the United States polygamy is illegal in all states Over a century ago citizens of the self governing territory of what is present day Utah were forced by the United States federal government to abandon the practice of polygamy through the vigorous enforcement of several Acts of Congress and eventually complied The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter day Saints formally abolished the practice in in a document labeled The Manifesto Among American Muslims a small minority of around to people are estimated to live in families with a husband maintaining an illegal polygamous relationship Several countries such as India and Sri Lanka permit only their Islamic citizens to practice polygamy Some Indians have converted to Islam in order to bypass such legal restrictions Predominantly Christian nations usually do not allow polygamous unions with a handful of exceptions being the Republic of the Congo Uganda and Zambia Myanmar frequently referred to as Burma is also the only predominantly Buddhist nation to allow for civil polygynous marriages though such is rarely tolerated by the Burmese population State recognitionIn various jurisdictions a civil marriage may take place as part of the religious marriage ceremony although they are theoretically distinct Some jurisdictions allow civil marriages in circumstances which are notably not allowed by particular religions such as same sex marriages or civil unions The opposite case may happen as well Partners may not have full juridical acting capacity and churches may have less strict limits than the civil jurisdictions This particularly applies to minimum age or physical infirmities citation needed clarification needed It is possible for two people to be recognised as married by a religious or other institution but not by the state and hence without the legal rights and obligations of marriage or to have a civil marriage deemed invalid and sinful by a religion Similarly a couple may remain married in religious eyes after a civil divorce Marriage license civil ceremony and registrationMain article Wedding Couple married in a Shinto ceremony in Takayama Gifu prefecture An Assyrian couple that just got married A marriage is usually formalized at a wedding or marriage ceremony The ceremony may be officiated either by a religious official by a government official or by a state approved celebrant In various European and some Latin American countries any religious ceremony must be held separately from the required civil ceremony Some countries – such as Belgium Bulgaria France the Netherlands Romania and Turkey – require that a civil ceremony take place before any religious one In some countries – notably the United States Canada the United Kingdom the Republic of Ireland Norway and Spain – both ceremonies can be held together the officiant at the religious and civil ceremony also serving as agent of the state to perform the civil ceremony To avoid any implication that the state is "recognizing" a religious marriage which is prohibited in some countries – the "civil" ceremony is said to be taking place at the same time as the religious ceremony Often this involves simply signing a register during the religious ceremony If the civil element of the religious ceremony is omitted the marriage ceremony is not recognized as a marriage by government under the law Some countries such as Australia permit marriages to be held in private and at any location others including England and Wales require that the civil ceremony be conducted in a place open to the public and specially sanctioned by law for the purpose In England the place of marriage formerly had to be a church or register office but this was extended to any public venue with the necessary licence An exception can be made in the case of marriage by special emergency license UK licence which is normally granted only when one of the parties is terminally ill Rules about where and when persons can marry vary from place to place Some regulations require one of the parties to reside within the jurisdiction of the register office formerly parish Each religious authority has rules for the manner in which marriages are to be conducted by their officials and members Where religious marriages are recognised by the state the officiator must also conform with the law of the jurisdiction Common law marriageSee also Common law marriage In a small number of jurisdictions marriage relationships may be created by the operation of the law alone citation needed Unlike the typical ceremonial marriage with legal contract wedding ceremony and other details a common law marriage may be called "marriage by habit and repute cohabitation " A de facto common law marriage without a license or ceremony is legally binding in some jurisdictions but has no legal consequence in others Civil unionsMain article Civil union Various advocates of same sex marriage such as this protester at a demonstration in New York City against California Proposition consider civil unions an inferior alternative to legal recognition of same sex marriage A civil union also referred to as a civil partnership is a legally recognized form of partnership similar to marriage Beginning with Denmark in civil unions under one name or another have been established by law in several countries in order to provide same sex couples rights benefits and responsibilities similar in some countries identical to opposite sex civil marriage In some jurisdictions such as Brazil New Zealand Uruguay Ecuador France and the U S states of Hawaii and Illinois civil unions are also open to opposite sex couples "Marriage of convenience"Sometimes people marry to take advantage of a certain situation sometimes called a marriage of convenience or a sham marriage For example according to one publisher of information about green card marriages "Every year over United States citizens marry foreign born individuals and petition for them to obtain a permanent residency Green Card in the United States " While this is likely an overestimate in alone immigrants were admitted to the U S as spouses of U S citizens More were admitted as fiancés of US citizens for the purpose of being married within days Regardless of the number of people entering the US to marry a US citizen it does not indicate the number of these marriages that are convenience marriages which number could include some of those with the motive of obtaining permanent residency but also include people who are US citizens One example would be to obtain an inheritance that has a marriage clause Another example would be to save money on health insurance or to enter a health plan with preexisting conditions offered by the new spouse s employer Other situations exist and in fact all marriages have a complex combination of conveniences motivating the parties to marry A marriage of convenience is one that is devoid of normal reasons to marry In certain countries like Singapore sham marriages like these are punishable criminal offences Contemporary legal and human rights criticisms of marriage "Esposas de Matrimonio" "Wedding Cuffs" a wedding ring sculpture expressing the criticism of marriages effects on individual liberty Esposas is a play on Spanish in which the singular form of the word esposa refers to a spouse and the plural refers to handcuffs Main article Criticism of marriage People have proposed arguments against marriage for reasons that include political philosophical and religious criticisms concerns about the divorce rate individual liberty and gender equality questioning the necessity of having a personal relationship sanctioned by government or religious authorities or the promotion of celibacy for religious or philosophical reasons Power and gender rolesFeminist theory approaches opposite sex marriage as an institution traditionally rooted in patriarchy that promotes male superiority and power over women This power dynamic conceptualizes men as "the provider operating in the public sphere" and women as "the caregivers operating within the private sphere" "Theoretically women were defined as the property of their husbands The adultery of a woman was always treated with more severity than that of a man " " F eminist demands for a wife s control over her own property were not met in parts of Britain until laws were passed in the late th century " Traditional marriage imposed an obligation of the wife to be sexually available for her husband and an obligation of the husband to provide material financial support for the wife Numerous philosophers feminists and other academic figures have commented on this throughout history condemning the hypocrisy of legal and religious authorities in regard to sexual issues pointing to the lack of choice of a woman in regard to controlling her own sexuality and drawing parallels between marriage an institution promoted as sacred and prostitution widely condemned and vilified though often tolerated as a "necessary evil" Mary Wollstonecraft in the th century described marriage as "legal prostitution" Emma Goldman wrote in "To the moralist prostitution does not consist so much in the fact that the woman sells her body but rather that she sells it out of wedlock" Bertrand Russell in his book Marriage and Morals wrote that "Marriage is for woman the commonest mode of livelihood and the total amount of undesired sex endured by women is probably greater in marriage than in prostitution " Angela Carter in Nights at the Circus wrote "What is marriage but prostitution to one man instead of many " Some critics object to what they see as propaganda in relation to marriage – from the government religious organizations the media – which aggressively promote marriage as a solution for all social problems such propaganda includes for instance marriage promotion in schools where children especially girls are bombarded with positive information about marriage being presented only with the information prepared by authorities The performance of dominant gender roles by men and submissive gender roles by women influence the power dynamic of a marriage In some American households women internalize gender role stereotypes and often assimilate into the role of "wife" "mother" and "caretaker" in conformity to societal norms and their male partner Author bell hooks states "within the family structure individuals learn to accept sexist oppression as natural and are primed to support other forms of oppression including heterosexist domination " " T he cultural economic political and legal supremacy of the husband" was " t raditional under English law" This patriarchal dynamic is contrasted with a conception of egalitarian or Peer Marriage in which power and labour are divided equally and not according to gender roles In the US studies have shown that despite egalitarian ideals being common less than half of respondents viewed their opposite sex relationships as equal in power with unequal relationships being more commonly dominated by the male partner Studies also show that married couples find the highest level of satisfaction in egalitarian relationships and lowest levels of satisfaction in wife dominate relationships In recent years egalitarian or Peer Marriages have been receiving increasing focus and attention politically economically and culturally in a number of countries including the United States Sex outside of marriageSee also Chastity and Adultery Christ and the woman taken in adultery by Jan Brueghel the Elder Pinakothek Magdalene laundries were institutions that existed from the th to the late th centuries throughout Europe and North America where "fallen women" including unmarried mothers were detained Photo Magdalene laundry in Ireland ca early twentieth century Different societies demonstrate variable tolerance of extramarital sex The Standard Cross Cultural Sample describes the occurrence of extramarital sex by gender in over pre industrial cultures The occurrence of extramarital sex by men is described as "universal" in cultures "moderate" in cultures "occasional" in cultures and "uncommon" in cultures The occurrence of extramarital sex by women is described as "universal" in cultures "moderate" in cultures "occasional" in cultures and "uncommon" in cultures Three studies using nationally representative samples in the United States found that between – of women and – of men engage in extramarital sex Many of the world s major religions look with disfavor on sexual relations outside marriage There are non secular states that sanction criminal penalties for sexual intercourse before marriage citation needed Sexual relations by a married person with someone other than his her spouse is known as adultery Adultery is considered in many jurisdictions to be a crime and grounds for divorce In some countries such as Saudi Arabia Pakistan Afghanistan Iran Kuwait Maldives Morocco Oman Mauritania United Arab Emirates Sudan Yemen any form of sexual activity outside marriage is illegal In some parts of the world women and girls accused of having sexual relations outside marriage are at risk of becoming victims of honor killings committed by their families In several people were sentenced to death by stoning after being accused of adultery in Iran Somalia Afghanistan Sudan Mali and Pakistan Practices such as honor killings and stoning continue to be supported by mainstream politicians and other officials in some countries In Pakistan after the Balochistan honour killings in which five women were killed by tribesmen of the Umrani Tribe of Balochistan Pakistani Federal Minister for Postal Services Israr Ullah Zehri defended the practice he said "These are centuries old traditions and I will continue to defend them Only those who indulge in immoral acts should be afraid " Marriage and sexual violenceMain article Marital rape An issue that is a serious concern regarding marriage and which has been the object of international scrutiny is that of sexual violence within marriage Throughout much of the history in most cultures sex in marriage was considered a right that could be taken by force often by a man from a women if denied As the concept of human rights started to develop in the th century and with the arrival of second wave feminism such views have become less widely held The legal and social concept of marital rape has developed in most industrialized countries in the mid to late th century in many other parts of the world it is not recognized as a form of abuse socially or legally Several countries in Eastern Europe and Scandinavia made marital rape illegal before and other countries in Western Europe and the English speaking Western World outlawed it in the s and s In England and Wales marital rape was made illegal in Although marital rape is being increasingly criminalized in developing countries too cultural religious and traditional ideologies about "conjugal rights" remain very strong in many parts of the world and even in many countries that have adequate laws against rape in marriage these laws are rarely enforced Apart from the issue of rape committed against one s spouse marriage is in many parts of the world closely connected with other forms of sexual violence in some places like Morocco unmarried girls and women who are raped are often forced by their families to marry their rapist Because being the victim of rape and losing virginity carry extreme social stigma and the victims are deemed to have their "reputation" tarnished a marriage with the rapist is arranged This is claimed to be in the advantage of both the victim – who does not remain unmarried and doesn t lose social status – and of the rapist who avoids punishment In after a Moroccan year old girl committed suicide after having been forced by her family to marry her rapist and enduring further abuse by the rapist after they married there have been protests from activists against this practice which is common in Morocco In some societies the very high social and religious importance of marital fidelity especially female fidelity has as result the criminalization of adultery often with harsh penalties such as stoning or flogging as well as leniency towards punishment of violence related to infidelity such as honor killings In the st century criminal laws against adultery have become controversial with international organizations calling for their abolition Opponents of adultery laws argue that these laws are a major contributor to discrimination and violence against women as they are enforced selectively mostly against women that they prevent women from reporting sexual violence and that they maintain social norms which justify violent crimes committed against women by husbands families and communities A Joint Statement by the United Nations Working Group on discrimination against women in law and in practice states that "Adultery as a criminal offence violates women s human rights" Some human rights organizations argue that the criminalization of adultery also violates internationally recognized protections for private life as it represents an arbitrary interference with an individual s privacy which is not permitted under international law Marriage laws human rights and the global status of womenThe laws surrounding marriage in many countries have come under international scrutiny because they contradict international standards of human rights institutionalize violence against women child marriage and forced marriage require the permission of a husband for his wife to work in a paid job sign legal documents file criminal charges against someone sue in civil court etc sanction the use by husbands of violence to "discipline" their wives and discriminate against women in divorce Such things were legal even in many Western countries until recently for instance in France married women obtained the right to work without their husband s permission in and in West Germany women obtained this right in by comparison women in East Germany had much more rights In Spain during Franco s era a married woman needed her husband s consent referred to as the permiso marital for almost all economic activities including employment ownership of property and even traveling away from home the permiso marital was abolished in An absolute submission of a wife to her husband is accepted as natural in many parts of the world for instance surveys by UNICEF have shown that the percentage of women aged – who think that a husband is justified in hitting or beating his wife under certain circumstances is as high as in Afghanistan and Jordan in Mali in Guinea and Timor Leste in Laos in Central African Republic Detailed results from Afghanistan show that of women agree with a beating if the wife "goes out without telling him the husband " and agree "if she argues with him" Throughout history and still today in many countries laws have provided for mitigating circumstances partial or complete defenses for men who killed their wives due to adultery with such acts often being seen as crimes of passion and being covered by legal defenses such as provocation or defense of family honor Dowry and bridewealth Anti dowry poster in Bangalore IndiaIn recent years the customs of dowry and bride price have received international criticism for inciting conflicts between families and clans contributing to violence against women promoting materialism increasing property crimes where men steal goods such as cattle in order to be able to pay the bride price and making it difficult for poor people to marry African women s rights campaigners advocate the abolishing of bride price which they argue is based on the idea that women are a form of property which can be bought Bride price has also been