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Vacant April – March n Elbridge Gerry March – November n Vacant November – March n James Monroe April – July aged Virginia March – March Democratic Republican th United States Secretary of State – Daniel D Tompkins John Quincy Adams July – February aged Massachusetts March – March n Democratic Republican th United States Secretary of State – John C Calhoun March – December n Andrew Jackson March – June aged Tennessee March – March Democratic U S Senator Class from Tennessee – Vacant December – March n Martin Van Buren March – March Martin Van Buren December – July aged New York March – March n n Democratic th Vice President of the United States Richard Mentor Johnson William Henry Harrison February – April aged Ohio March – April n Whig United States Minister to Colombia – John Tyler John Tyler March – January aged Virginia April – March Whig April – September th Vice President of the United States n Vacant n Independent September – March n James K Polk November – June aged Tennessee March – March Democratic th Governor of Tennessee – George M Dallas Zachary Taylor November – July aged Louisiana March – July n n Whig Major General of the st Infantry Regiment United States Army – Millard Fillmore Millard Fillmore January – March aged New York July – March n Whig th Vice President of the United States Vacant n Franklin Pierce November – October aged New Hampshire March – March Democratic Brigadier General of the th Infantry United States Army – William R King March – April n n Vacant April – March n James Buchanan April – June aged Pennsylvania March – March Democratic United States Minister to the Court of St James s – John C Breckinridge Abraham Lincoln February – April aged Illinois March – April n n Republican U S Representative for Illinois th – Hannibal Hamlin March – March Republican National Union n Andrew Johnson March – April Andrew Johnson December – July aged Tennessee April – March Democratic National Union Not Affiliated n n th Vice President of the United States Vacant n Ulysses S Grant April – July aged Illinois March – March Republican Commanding General of the U S Army – Schuyler Colfax March – March Henry Wilson March – November n n Vacant November – March n Rutherford B Hayes October – January aged Ohio March – March Republican nd Governor of Ohio – – William A Wheeler James A Garfield November – September aged Ohio March – September n n Republican U S Representative for Ohio s th – Chester A Arthur Chester A Arthur October – November aged New York September – March Republican th Vice President of the United States Vacant n Grover Cleveland March – June aged New York March – March n Democratic th Governor of New York – Thomas A Hendricks March – November n n Vacant November – March n Benjamin Harrison August – March aged Indiana March – March n Republican U S Senator Class from Indiana – Levi P Morton Grover Cleveland March – June aged New York March – March Democratic nd President of the United States – Adlai Stevenson William McKinley January – September aged Ohio March – September n n Republican th Governor of Ohio – Garret Hobart March – November n Vacant November – March n Theodore Roosevelt of New York March – September Theodore Roosevelt October – January aged New York September – March n Republican th Vice President of the United States Vacant September – March n Charles W Fairbanks March – March William Howard Taft September – March aged Ohio March – March n Republican nd United States Secretary of War – James S Sherman March – October n n Vacant October – March n Woodrow Wilson December – February aged New Jersey March – March Democratic th Governor of New Jersey – Thomas R Marshall Warren G Harding November – August aged Ohio March – August n n Republican U S Senator Class from Ohio – Calvin Coolidge Calvin Coolidge July – January aged Massachusetts August – March Republican th Vice President of the United States Vacant August – March n Charles G Dawes March – March Herbert Hoover August – October aged California March – March n Republican rd United States Secretary of Commerce – Charles Curtis Franklin D Roosevelt January – April aged New York March – April n n Democratic n th Governor of New York – John Nance Garner March – January Henry A Wallace January – January Harry S Truman January – April Harry S Truman May – December aged Missouri April – January Democratic th Vice President of the United States Vacant April – January n Alben W Barkley January – January Dwight D Eisenhower October – March aged New York and Kansas January – January n Republican Supreme Allied Commander Europe – Richard Nixon John F Kennedy May – November aged Massachusetts January – November n n Democratic U S Senator Class from Massachusetts – Lyndon B Johnson Lyndon B Johnson August – January aged Texas November – January Democratic th Vice President of the United States Vacant November – January n Hubert Humphrey January – January Richard Nixon January – April aged New York and California January – August n Republican th Vice President of the United States – Spiro Agnew January – October n Vacant October – December n Gerald Ford December – August Gerald Ford July – December aged Michigan August – January n n Republican th Vice President of the United States Vacant August – December n Nelson Rockefeller December – January Jimmy Carter Born October age Georgia January – January n Democratic th Governor of Georgia – Walter Mondale Ronald Reagan February – June aged California January – January Republican rd Governor of California – George H W Bush George H W Bush Born June age Texas January – January n Republican rd

Vice President of the United States Dan Quayle Adams edit John Adams Elementary School Adams House Harvard University John Adams Middle School Kanawha County Schools Charleston WV Bush edit George Bush High School George Bush School of Government and Public Service Coolidge edit Coolidge High School located in town with same namesake Coolidge Middle School several Eisenhower edit Eisenhower College Eisenhower Institute Eisenhower Elementary School Eisenhower Middle School several Fillmore edit Millard Fillmore College Ford edit Gerald R Ford School of Public Policy Harding edit Warren Harding High School Warren G Harding High School Warren G Harding Middle School W Harrison edit William Henry Harrison High School Indiana William Henry Harrison High School Indiana William Henry Harrison High School Ohio Hoover edit Herbert Hoover Middle School Maryland Herbert Hoover High School West Virginia Hoover Institution Jackson edit Andrew Jackson High School several Andrew Jackson Fundamental 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Wisconsin Ronald W Reagan High School Pfafftown North Carolina Roosevelt edit Roosevelt Academy city hallRoosevelt Academy Martin Van Buren High School MVBHS is a public high school in Queens Village New York The school is operated by the New York City Department of Education Contents History A wired glove also called a "dataglove" Oxford English Dictionary or "cyberglove" is an input device for human–computer interaction worn like a glove Various sensor technologies are used to capture physical data such as bending of fingers Often a motion tracker such as a magnetic tracking device or inertial tracking device is attached to capture the global position rotation data of the glove These movements are then interpreted by the software that accompanies the glove so any one movement can mean any number of things Gestures can then be categorized into useful information such as to recognize Sign Language or other symbolic functions Expensive high end wired gloves can also provide haptic feedback which is a simulation of the sense of touch This allows a wired glove to also be used as an output device Traditionally wired gloves have only been available at a huge cost with the finger bend sensors and the tracking device having to be bought separately Wired gloves are often used in virtual reality environments Contents History Alternatives Popular culture Academic and Research Projects Motion capture Mo cap for short is the process of recording the movement of objects or people It is used in military entertainment sports medical applications and for validation of computer vision and robotics In filmmaking and video game development it refers to recording actions of human actors and using that information to animate digital character models in D or D computer animation When it includes face and fingers or captures subtle expressions it is often referred to as performance capture In many fields motion capture is sometimes called motion tracking but in filmmaking and games motion tracking usually refers more to match moving In motion capture sessions movements of one or more actors are sampled many times per second Whereas early techniques used images from multiple cameras to calculate D positions often the purpose of motion capture is to record only the movements of the actor not his or her visual appearance This animation data is mapped to a D model so that the model performs the same actions as the actor This process may be contrasted to the older technique of rotoscope such as the Ralph Bakshi The Lord of the Rings and American Pop animated films where the motion of an actor was filmed then the film used as a guide for the frame by frame motion of a hand drawn animated character Camera movements can also be motion captured so that a virtual camera in the scene will pan tilt or dolly around the stage driven by a camera operator while the actor is performing and the motion capture system can capture the camera and props as well as the actor s performance This allows the computer generated characters images and sets to have the same perspective as the video images from the camera A computer processes the data and displays the movements of the actor providing the desired camera positions in terms of objects in the set Retroactively obtaining camera movement data from the captured footage is known as match moving or camera tracking Contents Advantages Disadvantages Applications Methods and systems Optical systems Passive markers Active marker Time modulated active marker Semi passive imperceptible marker Underwater motion capture system Underwater cameras Measurement volume Tailored Markerless Traditional systems Non optical systems Inertial systems Mechanical motion Magnetic systems Related techniques Facial motion capture RF positioning Non traditional systems See also References Advantages edit This section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed February Motion capture offers several advantages over traditional computer animation of a D model More rapid even real time results can be obtained In entertainment applications this can reduce the costs of keyframe based animation The Hand Over technique is an example of this The amount of work does not vary with the complexity or length of the performance to the same degree as when using traditional techniques This allows many tests to be done with different styles or deliveries giving a different personality only limited by the talent of the actor Complex movement and realistic physical interactions such as secondary motions weight and exchange of forces can be easily recreated in a physically accurate manner The amount of animation data that can be produced within a given time is extremely large when compared to traditional animation techniques This contributes to both cost effectiveness and meeting production deadlines Potential for free software and third party solutions reducing its costs Disadvantages edit This section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed February Specific hardware and special software programs are required to obtain and process the data The cost of the software equipment and personnel required can be prohibitive for small productions The capture system may have specific requirements for the space it is operated in depending on camera field of view or magnetic distortion When problems occur it is easier to reshoot the scene rather than trying to manipulate the data Only a few systems allow real time viewing of the data to decide if the take needs to be redone The initial results are limited to what can be performed within the capture volume without extra editing of the data Movement that does not follow the laws of physics cannot be captured Traditional animation techniques such as added emphasis on anticipation and follow through secondary motion or manipulating the shape of the character as with squash and stretch animation techniques must be added later If the computer model has different proportions from the capture subject artefacts may occur For example if a cartoon character has large over sized hands these may intersect the character s body if the human performer is not careful with their physical motion Applications edit This section except for one footnote needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed February Motion Capture Performers from Buckinghamshire New UniversityVideo games often use motion capture to animate athletes martial artists and other in game characters This has been done since the Sega Model arcade game Virtua Fighter in By mid the use of motion capture in video game development had become commonplace and developer publisher Acclaim Entertainment had gone so far as to have its own in house motion capture studio built into its headquarters Namco s arcade game Soul Edge used passive optical system markers for motion capture In film Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs used an early form of motion capture technology Actors and actresses would act out scenes and would be filmed The animators would then use the individual frames as a guide to their drawings Movies use motion capture for CG effects in some cases replacing traditional cel animation and for completely computer generated creatures such as Gollum The Mummy King Kong Davy Jones from Pirates of the Caribbean the Na vi from the film Avatar and Clu from Tron Legacy The Great Goblin the three Stone trolls many of the orcs and goblins in the film The Hobbit An Unexpected Journey and Smaug were created using motion capture Sinbad Beyond the Veil of Mists was the first movie made primarily with motion capture although many character animators also worked on the film which had a very limited release s Final Fantasy The Spirits Within was the first widely released movie to be made primarily with motion capture technology Despite its poor box office intake supporters of motion capture technology took notice The Lord of the Rings The Two Towers was the first feature film to utilize a real time motion capture system This method streamed the actions of actor Andy Serkis into the computer generated skin of Gollum Smeagol as it was being performed Out of the three nominees for the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature two of the nominees Monster House and the winner Happy Feet used motion capture and only Disney Pixar s Cars was animated without motion capture In the ending credits of Pixar s film Ratatouille a stamp appears labelling the film as " Pure Animation – No Motion Capture " Since motion capture is being used extensively to produce films which attempt to simulate or approximate the look of live action cinema with nearly photorealistic digital character models The Polar Express used motion capture to allow Tom Hanks to perform as several distinct digital characters in which he also provided the voices The adaptation of the saga Beowulf animated digital characters whose appearances were based in part on the actors who provided their motions and voices James Cameron s highly popular Avatar used this technique to create the Na vi that inhabit Pandora The Walt Disney Company has produced Robert Zemeckis s A Christmas Carol using this technique In Disney acquired Zemeckis ImageMovers Digital that produces motion capture films but then closed it in after a string of failures Television series produced entirely with motion capture animation include Laflaque in Canada Sprookjesboom and Cafe de Wereld in The Netherlands and Headcases in the UK Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality allow users to interact with digital content in real time This can be useful for training simulations visual perception tests or performing a virtual walk throughs in a D environment Motion capture technology is frequently used in digital puppetry systems to drive computer generated characters in real time Gait analysis is the major application of motion capture in clinical medicine Techniques allow clinicians to evaluate human motion across several biometric factors often while streaming this information live into analytical software During the filming of James Cameron s Avatar all of the scenes involving this process were directed in realtime using Autodesk Motion Builder software to render a screen image which allowed the director and the actor to see what they would look like in the movie making it easier to direct the movie as it would be seen by the viewer This method allowed views and angles not possible from a pre rendered animation Cameron was so proud of his results that he even invited Steven Spielberg and George Lucas on set to view the system in action In Marvel s critically acclaimed The Avengers Mark Ruffalo used motion capture so he could play his character the Hulk rather than have him be only CGI like previous films making Ruffalo the first actor to play both the human and the Hulk versions of Bruce Banner Methods and systems edit Reflective markers attached to skin to identify bony landmarks and the D motion of body segments Silhouette trackingMotion tracking or motion capture started as a photogrammetric analysis tool in biomechanics research in the s and s and expanded into education training sports and recently computer animation for television cinema and video games as the technology matured Since the th century the performer has to wears markers near each joint to identify the motion by the positions or angles between the markers Acoustic inertial LED magnetic or reflective markers or combinations of any of these are tracked optimally at least two times the frequency rate of the desired motion The resolution of the system is important in both the spatial resolution and temporal resolution as motion blur causes almost the same problems as low resolution Since the beginning of the th century and because of the rapidly growth of technology new methods were developed Most modern systems can extract the silhouette of the performer from the background Afterwards all joint angles are calculated by fitting in a mathamatic model into the silhouette For movements you can t see a change of the silhouette there are hybrid Systems available who can do both marker and silhouette but with less marker Optical systems edit Optical systems utilize data captured from image sensors to triangulate the D position of a subject between two or more cameras calibrated to provide overlapping projections Data acquisition is traditionally implemented using special markers attached to an actor however more recent systems are able to generate accurate data by tracking surface features identified dynamically for each particular subject Tracking a large number of performers or expanding the capture area is accomplished by the addition of more cameras These systems produce data with degrees of freedom for each marker and rotational information must be inferred from the relative orientation of three or more markers for instance shoulder elbow and wrist markers providing the angle of the elbow Newer hybrid systems are combining inertial sensors with optical sensors to reduce occlusion increase the number of users and improve the ability to track without having to manually clean up data Passive markers edit A dancer wearing a suit used in an optical motion capture system Several markers are placed at specific points on an actor s face during facial optical motion capturePassive optical system use markers coated with a retroreflective material to reflect light that is generated near the cameras lens The camera s threshold can be adjusted so only the bright reflective markers will be sampled ignoring skin and fabric The centroid of the marker is estimated as a position within the two dimensional image that is captured The grayscale value of each pixel can be used to provide sub pixel accuracy by finding the centroid of the Gaussian An object with markers attached at known positions is used to calibrate the cameras and obtain their positions and the lens distortion of each camera is measured If two calibrated cameras see a marker a three dimensional fix can be obtained Typically a system will consist of around to cameras Systems of over three hundred cameras exist to try to reduce marker swap Extra cameras are required for full coverage around the capture subject and multiple subjects Vendors have constraint software to reduce the problem of marker swapping since all passive markers appear identical Unlike active marker systems and magnetic systems passive systems do not require the user to wear wires or electronic equipment Instead hundreds of rubber balls are attached with reflective tape which needs to be replaced periodically The markers are usually attached directly to the skin as in biomechanics or they are velcroed to a performer wearing a full body spandex lycra suit designed specifically for motion capture This type of system can capture large numbers of markers at frame rates usually around to fps although by lowering the resolution and tracking a smaller region of interest they can track as high as fps Active marker edit Active optical systems triangulate positions by illuminating one LED at a time very quickly or multiple LEDs with software to identify them by their relative positions somewhat akin to celestial navigation Rather than reflecting light back that is generated externally the markers themselves are powered to emit their own light Since Inverse Square law provides the power at times the distance this can increase the distances and volume for capture This also enables high signal to noise ratio resulting in very low marker jitter and a resulting high measurement resolution often down to mm within the calibrated volume The TV series "Stargate SG " produced episodes using an active optical system for the VFX allowing the actor to walk around props that would make motion capture difficult for other non active optical systems ILM used active Markers in Van Helsing to allow capture of Dracula s flying brides on very large sets similar to Weta s use of active markers in "Rise of the Planet of the Apes" The power to each marker can be provided sequentially in phase with the capture system providing a unique identification of each marker for a given capture frame at a cost to the resultant frame rate The ability to identify each marker in this manner is useful in realtime applications The alternative method of identifying markers is to do it algorithmically requiring extra processing of the data There are also possibilities to find the position by using coloured LED Markers In these Systems each colour is assigned to a specific point of the body One of the earliest active marker systems in the s was a hybrid passive active mocap system with rotating mirrors and colored glass reflective markers and which used masked linear array detectors Time modulated active marker edit A high resolution uniquely identified active marker system with Χ resolution at hertz providing real time submillimeter positions Active marker systems can further be refined by strobing one marker on at a time or tracking multiple markers over time and modulating the amplitude or pulse width to provide marker ID megapixel spatial resolution modulated systems show more subtle movements than megapixel optical systems by having both higher spatial and temporal resolution Directors can see the actors performance in real time and watch the results on the motion capture driven CG character The unique marker IDs reduce the turnaround by eliminating marker swapping and providing much cleaner data than other technologies LEDs with onboard processing and a radio synchronization allow motion capture outdoors in direct sunlight while capturing at to frames per second due to a high speed electronic shutter Computer processing of modulated IDs allows less hand cleanup or filtered results for lower operational costs This higher accuracy and resolution requires more processing than passive technologies but the additional processing is done at the camera to improve resolution via a subpixel or centroid processing providing both high resolution and high speed These motion capture systems are typically for an eight camera megapixel spatial resolution hertz system with one actor IR sensors can compute their location when lit by mobile multi LED emitters e g in a moving car With Id per marker these sensor tags can be worn under clothing and tracked at Hz in broad daylight Semi passive imperceptible marker edit One can reverse the traditional approach based on high speed cameras Systems such as Prakash use inexpensive multi LED high speed projectors The specially built multi LED IR projectors optically encode the space Instead of retro reflective or active light emitting diode LED markers the system uses photosensitive marker tags to decode the optical signals By attaching tags with photo sensors to scene points the tags can compute not only their own locations of each point but also their own orientation incident illumination and reflectance These tracking tags work in natural lighting conditions and can be imperceptibly embedded in attire or other objects The system supports an unlimited number of tags in a scene with each tag uniquely identified to eliminate marker reacquisition issues Since the system eliminates a high speed camera and the corresponding high speed image stream it requires significantly lower data bandwidth The tags also provide incident illumination data which can be used to match scene lighting when inserting synthetic elements The technique appears ideal for on set motion capture or real time broadcasting of virtual sets but has yet to be proven Underwater motion capture system edit Motion capture technology has been available for researchers and scientists for a few decades which has given new insight into many fields Underwater cameras edit The vital part of the system the Underwater camera has a waterproof housing The housing has a finish that withstands corrosion and chlorine which makes it perfect for use in basins and swimming pools There are two types of cameras Industrial high speed cameras can also be used as infred cameras The infrared underwater cameras comes with a cyan light strobe instead of the typical IR light—for minimum falloff under water and the high speed cameras cone with an LED light or with the option of using image processing A database is an organized collection of data It is the collection of schemes tables queries reports views and other objects The data is typically organized to model aspects of reality in a way that supports processes requiring information such as modelling the availability of rooms in hotels in a way that supports finding a hotel with vacancies A database management system DBMS is a computer software application that interacts with the user other applications and the database itself to capture and analyze data A general purpose DBMS is designed to allow the definition creation querying update and administration of databases Well known DBMSs include MySQL PostgreSQL Microsoft SQL Server Oracle Sybase and IBM DB A database is not generally portable across different DBMSs but different DBMS can interoperate by using standards such as SQL and ODBC or JDBC to allow a single application to work with more than one DBMS Database management systems are often classified according to the database model that they support the most popular database systems since the s have all supported the relational model as represented by the SQL language disputed – discuss Sometimes a DBMS is loosely referred to as a database Contents Terminology and overview Applications General purpose and special purpose DBMSs History s navigational DBMS s relational DBMS Integrated approach Late s SQL DBMS s on the desktop s object oriented s NoSQL and NewSQL Research Examples Design and modeling Models External conceptual and internal views Languages Performance security and availability Storage Materialized views Replication Security Transactions and concurrency Migration Building maintaining and tuning Backup and restore Static Analysis Other See also References Further reading External links Terminology and overview edit Formally a "database" refers to a set of related data and the way it is organized Access to this data is usually provided by a "database management system" DBMS consisting of an integrated set of computer software that allows users to interact with one or more databases and provides access to all of the data contained in the database although restrictions may exist that limit access to particular data The DBMS provides various functions that allow entry storage and retrieval of large quantities of information and provides ways to manage how that information is organized Because of the close relationship between them the term "database" is often used casually to refer to both a database and the DBMS used to manipulate it Outside the world of professional information technology the term database is often used to refer to any collection of related data such as a spreadsheet or a card index This article is concerned only with databases where the size and usage requirements necessitate use of a database management system Existing DBMSs provide various functions that allow management of a database and its data which can be classified into four main functional groups Data definition – Creation modification and removal of definitions that define the organization of the data Update – Insertion modification and deletion of the actual data Retrieval – Providing information in a form directly usable or for further processing by other applications The retrieved data may be made available in a form basically the same as it is stored in the database or in a new form obtained by altering or combining existing data from the database Administration – Registering and monitoring users enforcing data security monitoring performance maintaining data integrity dealing with concurrency control and recovering information that has been corrupted by some event


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carmel-nougat carmen-blonde carmen-de-la-torre carmen-moore carmen-rose carol-connors carol-cross carol-cummings carole-dubois carole-gire carole-pierac carol-titian carolyn-connoly carolyn-monroe carrie-cruise cassandra-leigh cassidy cassie-courtland cataline-bullock catherine-count catherine-crystal catherine-ringer catherine-tailleferre cathy-delorme cathy-menard cathy-stewart celeste-fox celine-gallone chanel-preston chanel-price chantal-virapin chanta-rose chantelle-stevens charisma charisma-cole charlie-latour charlie-waters charlotte-de-castille charmane-star chasey-lain chayse-manhattan chaz-vincent chelsea-sinclaire chennin-blanc cheri-janvier cheri-taylor cherry-hill chessie-moore cheyenne-hunter cheyenne-silver china-lee china-leigh china-moon chloe-cruize chloe-dior chloe-kez chloe-stevens chris-collins chris-jordan chris-petersen chrissie-beauchamp christa-abel christa-ludwig christie-ford christi-lake christina-berg christina-blond christina-evol christina-skye christine-black christine-chavert christine-neona christine-rigoler christy-canyon cicciolina cindi-stephens cindy-carver cindy-crawford cindy-more cindy-shepard cindy-wong cinthya-marinho clair-dia claire-robbins claude-janna claudia-jackson claudia-jamsson claudia-mehringer claudia-nero claudia-van-statt claudia-zante claudine-beccarie clea-carson cleo-nichole cleo-patra cody-lane cody-love cody-nicole coffee-brown colleen-brennan connie-bennett connie-peterson constance-money copper-penny coreena corey-everson corinne-lemoine corneliah cory-everson cory-wolf courtney courtney-cummz courtney-james cris-cassidy crissy-moran cris-taliana crystal-breeze crystal-dawn crystal-holland crystal-knight crystal-lake crystal-lovin crystal-sync csilla-kalnay cuban-bee cynara-fox cyndee-summers cynthia-black cynthia-brooks cynthia-hammers cynthia-lavigne dagmar-lost daisy-layne dallas-miko dana-dylan dana-lynn danica-rhea daniela-nanou daniela-schiffer daniele-troeger daniella daniella-schiffer danielle danielle-foxxx danielle-rodgers danny-ricci danyel-cheeks daphne daphne-rosen darby-lloyd-rains darla-crane darla-delovely davia-ardell dayton-rain debbie-northrup debbie-revenge debbie-van-gils debi-diamond debi-jointed debra-lynn deidra-hopkins deidre-holland delania-raffino delia-moore delphine-thail delta-force delta-white demi-moor denice-klarskov denise-derringer denise-dior denise-sloan desiree-cousteau desiree-foxx desiree-lane desiree-west deva-station devin-devasquez devinn-lane devon-shire dia diana-holt diana-kisabonyi diana-siefert diana-stevenson diane-dubois diane-richards diane-sloan diane-suresne dido-angel dillan-lauren dina-deville dina-jewel dina-pearl ditty-blue diva divinity-love djiana dolly-darkley dominique dominique-dewitt dominique-saint-claire donna-hart donna-marie dorle-buchner dorothy-lemay dorothy-onan drea drimla dru-berrymore dusty-rose dyanna-lauren ebony-ayes edina-blond edita-ungerova edwige-faillel eileen-wells elaine-southern elena-berkova elena-maria-ricci eleonore-melzer elisabeth-bure elis-black elise elise-di-medici elle-devyne elle-rio elodie-delage elsa-maroussia elza-brown emili-doll emily-evermoore emily-george emily-jewel emmanuelle-pareze envy-mi erica-boyer erica-eaton erica-havens erica-idol erica-lauren erika-bella erika-cool erika-heaven erika-lockett esme-monroe eva-allen eva-angel eva-dionisio eva-gross eva-kleber eva-lux eva-uettori eve-laurence evelyne-lang evie-delatosso fabiana-venturi faith-stevens fallon fanny-garreau fanny-steel faye-runaway flame flick-shagwell flore-soller flower france-lomay france-quenie francoise frankie-leigh gabriella gabriella-mirelba gabriella-vincze gail-force gail-palmer gail-sterling georgette-saunders georgia-peach georgina-spelvin gia-givanna gianna-lynn gili-sky gina-carrera gina-gianetti gina-janssen gina-lee gina-martell gina-valentino ginger-jay ginger-lee ginger-lynn ginny-noack giovanna gisela-schwarz giselle-monet gladys-laroche gloria-leonard gloria-todd golden-jade greta-carlson greta-milos guia-lauri-filzi gwenda-farnel hare-krane harley-raine hayley-jade hazel-young heather-deeley heather-ellis heather-hart heather-lere heather-lyn heather-manfield heather-thomas heather-torrance heather-wayne heather-young helen-madigan helen-thomas helga-sven helga-wild hillary-summers holly-hollywood holly-joy holly-page holly-ryder honey-winter hottie-hollie hyapatia-lee ida-fabry ildiko-smits illana-moor ines-ridere ingrid-choray isabella-dior isabella-soprano isabelle-allay isabelle-brell isabelle-marchall isobel-wren iveta ivette-blanche jackie-right jacqueline-lorians jacy-allen jada-stevens jade-east jade-hsu jade-marcela jade-summers jade-wong jahn-gold jamie-brooks jamie-james jamie-summers jana-irrova jana-mrazkova jane-baker jane-darling jane-iwanoff jane-lindsay jane-lixx janet-jacme janey-robbins jasmine-delatori jayden-simone jaylyn-rose jayna-woods jazella-moore jazmin-luna-gold jean-afrique jeanette-littledove jeanie-marie-sullivan jean-jennings jeanna-fine jeannie-pepper jenna-jameson jenna-jane jenna-presley jenna-wells jennifer-haussmann jennifer-janes jennifer-jordan jennifer-morante jennifer-noxt jennifer-stewart jennifer-welles jennifer-west jenny jenny-feeling jenny-fields jenny-wings jersey-jaxin jesie-st-james jesse-capelli jessica-bangkok jessica-bogart jessica-darlin jessica-fiorentino jessica-gabriel jessica-laine jessica-may jessica-road jessica-wylde jessi-foster jill-ferari jill-kelly joana-redgrave joan-devlon joanna-storm joanna-sweet jody-maxwell joelle-lequement joelle-petinot johnni-black jordana-james jordan-green jordan-nevaeh jordan-star josephine-carrington joslyn-james julia-chanel julia-dal-fuoco juliana-grandi julia-paes julia-parton julia-perrin julia-swen julia-thomas julie-meadows julie-rage julie-simone juliet-anderson juliet-graham juliette-carelton kacey-jordan kagney-linn-karter kaitlyn-ashley kalena-rios kami-andrews kamila-smith kandee-licks kandi-barbour kapri-styles kara-nox karen-summer kari-foxx karine-gambier karin-schubert karli-sweet karmen-kennedy karol-castro kascha kassi-nova kat kate-frost kate-jones kathia-nobili kathleen-gentry kathleen-white kathy-divan kathy-harcourt kathy-heart kathy-kash katie-cummings katja-love kat-langer katrina-isis katrina-kraven katy-borman katy-caro kaycee-dean kayla-kupcakes kay-parker k-c-valentine keama-kim keira-moon keisha keli-richards kelli-tyler kelly-adams kelly-blue kelly-broox kelly-hearn kelly-kay kelly-kline kelly-nichols kelly-royce kelly-skyline kendra-kay kenzi-marie keri-windsor ketthy-divan kianna-dior kiley-heart kim-alexis kimber-blake kimberly-carson kimberly-kane kimberly-kyle kim-de-place kim-holland kimi-gee kimkim-de kim-kitaine kimmie-lee kimmy-nipples kina-kara kira-eggers kira-red kirsty-waay kitty-langdon kitty-lynxxx kitty-marie kitty-shayne kitty-yung kora-cummings kris-lara krista-lane krista-maze kristara-barrington kristarah-knight kristi-klenot kristina-blonde kristina-king kristina-klevits kristina-soderszk kristine-heller kristin-steen krisztina-ventura krystal-de-boor krystal-steal kylee-karr kylee-nash kylie-brooks kylie-channel kylie-haze kylie-wylde kym-wilde kyoto-sun lachelle-marie lacy-rose lady-amanda-wyldefyre lady-stephanie laetitia-bisset lana-burner lana-cox lana-wood lara-amour lara-roxx lara-stevens lataya-roxx latoya laura-clair laura-lazare laura-lion laura-may laura-orsolya laura-paouck laura-zanzibar lauren-black laurence-boutin lauren-montgomery laurien-dominique laurien-wilde laurie-smith lauryl-canyon lauryn-may leah-wilde lea-magic lea-martini leanna-foxxx lee-caroll leigh-livingston leilani lenora-bruce leslie-winston lesllie-bovee letizia-bruni lexi-lane lexi-matthews lezley-zen lia-fire liliane-gray liliane-lemieuvre lili-marlene lily-gilder lily-labeau lily-rodgers lily-valentine linda-shaw linda-vale linda-wong linnea-quigley lisa-bright lisa-de-leeuw lisa-k-loring lisa-lake lisa-melendez lisa-sue-corey lise-pinson little-oral-annie liza-dwyer liza-harper lizzy-borden logan-labrent lois-ayres lola-cait long-jean-silver loni-bunny loni-sanders loona-luxx lorelei-lee lorelei-rand lorena-sanchez lori-alexia lori-blue lorrie-lovett luci-diamond lucie-doll lucie-theodorova lucy-van-dam lydia-baum lynn-franciss lynn-lemay lynn-ray lynn-stevens lynx-canon lysa-thatcher madelina-ray madison-parker magdalena-lynn maggie-randall mai-lin mandi-wine mandy-bright mandy-malone mandy-may mandy-mistery mandy-starr marcia-minor maren margit-ojetz margitta-hofer margo-stevens margot-mahler mariah-cherry marianne-aubert maria-tortuga marie-anne marie-christine-chireix marie-christine-veroda marie-claude-moreau marie-dominique-cabannes marie-france-morel marie-luise-lusewitz marie-sharp marilyn-chambers marilyne-leroy marilyn-gee marilyn-jess marilyn-martyn marilyn-star marina-hedman marion-webb marita-ekberg marita-kemper marlena marlene-willoughby marry-queen martine-grimaud martine-schultz maryanne-fisher mary-hubay mary-ramunno mary-stuart mascha-mouton maud-kennedy mauvais-denoir maxine-tyler maya-black maya-france megan-leigh megan-martinez megan-reece mei-ling melanie-hotlips melanie-scott melba-cruz melinda-russell melissa-bonsardo melissa-del-prado melissa-golden melissa-martinez melissa-melendez melissa-monet mercedes-dragon mercedes-lynn merle-michaels mesha-lynn mia-beck mia-lina mia-smiles michele-raven michelle-aston michelle-ferrari michelle-greco michelle-maren michelle-maylene michelle-monroe micki-lynn mika-barthel mika-tan mikki-taylor mimi-morgan mindy-rae ming-toy miranda-stevens miss-bunny miss-meadow miss-pomodoro missy missy-graham missy-stone missy-vega misti-jane mistress-candice misty-anderson misty-dawn misty-rain misty-regan mona-lisa mona-page moni monica-baal monica-swinn monika-peta monika-sandmayr monika-unco monique-bruno monique-cardin monique-charell monique-demoan monique-gabrielle monique-la-belle morgan-fairlane morrigan-hel moxxie-maddron mulani-rivera mysti-may nadege-arnaud nadia-styles nadine-bronx nadine-proutnal nadine-roussial nadi-phuket nanci-suiter nancy-hoffman nancy-vee natacha-delyro natalia-wood natalli-diangelo natascha-throat natasha-skyler naudia-nyce nessa-devil nessy-grant nesty nicki-hunter nicky-reed nicole-berg nicole-bernard nicole-black nicole-grey nicole-london nicole-parks nicole-scott nicole-taylor nicolette-fauludi nicole-west nika-blond nika-mamic niki-cole nikita-love nikita-rush nikki-charm nikki-grand nikki-king nikki-knight nikki-randall nikki-rhodes nikki-santana nikki-steele nikki-wilde niko nina-cherry nina-deponca nina-hartley nina-preta oana-efria obaya-roberts olesja-derevko olga-cabaeva olga-conti olga-pechova olga-petrova olivia-alize olivia-del-rio olivia-flores olivia-la-roche olivia-outre ophelia-tozzi orchidea-keresztes orsolya-blonde paige-turner paisley-hunter pamela-bocchi pamela-jennings pamela-mann pamela-stanford pamela-stealt pandora paola-albini pascale-vital pat-manning pat-rhea patricia-dale patricia-diamond patricia-kennedy patricia-rhomberg patrizia-predan patti-cakes patti-petite paula-brasile paula-harlow paula-morton paula-price paula-winters pauline-teutscher penelope-pumpkins penelope-valentin petra-hermanova petra-lamas peyton-lafferty phaedra-grant pia-snow piper-fawn pipi-anderson porsche-lynn porsha-carrera precious-silver priscillia-lenn purple-passion queeny-love rachel-ashley rachel-love rachel-luv rachel-roxxx rachel-ryan rachel-ryder racquel-darrian rane-revere raven reagan-maddux rebecca-bardoux regan-anthony regine-bardot regula-mertens reina-leone reka-gabor renae-cruz renee-foxx renee-lovins renee-morgan renee-perez renee-summers renee-tiffany rhonda-jo-petty rikki-blake riley-ray rio-mariah rita-ricardo roberta-gemma roberta-pedon robin-byrd robin-cannes robin-everett robin-sane rochell-starr rosa-lee-kimball rosemarie roxanne-blaze roxanne-hall roxanne-rollan ruby-richards sabina-k sabre sabrina-chimaera sabrina-dawn sabrina-jade sabrina-johnson sabrina-love-cox sabrina-mastrolorenzi sabrina-rose sabrina-scott sabrina-summers sacha-davril sahara sahara-sands sai-tai-tiger samantha-fox samantha-ryan samantha-sterlyng samantha-strong samueline-de-la-rosa sandra-cardinale sandra-de-marco sandra-kalermen sandra-russo sandy-lee sandy-pinney sandy-reed sandy-samuel sandy-style sandy-summers sara-brandy-canyon sara-faye sarah-bernard sarah-cabrera sarah-hevyn sarah-mills sarah-shine sara-sloane sasha sasha-hollander sasha-ligaya sasha-rose satine-phoenix satin-summer savannah-stern savanna-jane scarlet-scarleau scarlet-windsor seka selena serena serena-south severine-amoux shana-evans shanna-mccullough shannon-kelly shannon-rush shantell-day sharon-da-vale sharon-kane sharon-mitchell shaun-michelle shawna-sexton shawnee-cates shay-hendrix shayne-ryder sheena-horne sheer-delight shelby-star shelby-stevens shelly-berlin shelly-lyons sheri-st-clair sheyla-cats shonna-lynn shyla-foxxx shy-love sierra-sinn sierra-skye sigrun-theil silver-starr silvia-bella silvia-saint silvie-de-lux silvy-taylor simone-west sindee-coxx sindy-lange sindy-shy siobhan-hunter skylar-knight skylar-price skyler-dupree smokie-flame smoking-mary-jane solange-shannon sonya-summers sophia-santi sophie-call sophie-duflot sophie-evans sophie-guers stacey-donovan stacy-lords stacy-moran stacy-nichols stacy-silver stacy-thorn starla-fox starr-wood stefania-bruni stella-virgin stephanie-duvalle stephanie-rage stephanie-renee stevie-taylor summer-knight summer-rose sunny-day sunset-thomas sunshine-seiber susan-hart susanne-brend susan-nero susi-hotkiss suzanne-mcbain suzan-nielsen suzie-bartlett suzie-carina suzi-sparks sweet-nice sweety-pie sybille-rossani sylvia-benedict sylvia-bourdon sylvia-brand sylvia-engelmann syreeta-taylor syren-de-mer syvette szabina-black szilvia-lauren tai-ellis taija-rae taisa-banx talia-james tamara-lee tamara-longley tamara-n-joy tamara-west tami-white tammy tammy-lee tammy-reynolds tania-lorenzo tantala-ray tanya-danielle tanya-fox tanya-foxx tanya-lawson tanya-valis tara-aire tasha-voux tatjana-belousova tatjana-skomorokhova tawnee-lee tawny-pearl tayla-rox taylor-wane teddi-austin teddi-barrett tera-bond tera-heart tera-joy teresa-may teresa-orlowski teri-diver teri-weigel terri-dolan terri-hall tess-ferre tess-newheart thais-vieira tia-cherry tianna tiara tiffany-blake tiffany-clark tiffany-duponte tiffany-rayne tiffany-rousso tiffany-storm tiffany-towers tiffany-tyler tiger-lily tigr timea-vagvoelgyi tina-blair tina-burner tina-evil tina-gabriel tina-loren tina-marie tina-russell tish-ambrose tommi-rose tonisha-mills topsy-curvey tori-secrets tori-sinclair tori-welles tracey-adams traci-lords traci-topps traci-winn tracy-duzit tracy-love tracy-williams tricia-devereaux tricia-yen trinity-loren trisha-rey trista-post trixie-tyler ultramax ursula-gaussmann ursula-moore uschi-karnat valentina valerie-leveau valery-hilton vanessa-chase vanessa-del-rio vanessa-michaels vanessa-ozdanic vanilla-deville velvet-summers veri-knotty veronica-dol veronica-hart veronica-hill veronica-rayne veronica-sage veronika-vanoza via-paxton vicky-lindsay vicky-vicci victoria-evans victoria-gold victoria-knight victoria-luna victoria-paris victoria-slick victoria-zdrok viper virginie-caprice vivian-valentine vivien-martines wendi-white wendy-divine whitney-banks whitney-fears whitney-wonders wonder-tracey wow-nikki xanthia-berstein yasmine-fitzgerald yelena-shieffer yvonne-green zara-whites zsanett-egerhazi zuzie-boobies





such as an unexpected system failure Both a database and its DBMS conform to the principles of a particular database model "Database system" refers collectively to the database model database management system and database Physically database servers are dedicated computers that hold the actual databases and run only the DBMS and related software Database servers are usually multiprocessor computers with generous memory and RAID disk arrays used for stable storage RAID is used for recovery of data if any of the disks fail Hardware database accelerators connected to one or more servers via a high speed channel are also used in large volume transaction processing environments DBMSs are found at the heart of most database applications DBMSs may be built around a custom multitasking kernel with built in networking support but modern DBMSs typically rely on a standard operating system to provide these functions citation needed Since DBMSs comprise a significant economical market computer and storage vendors often take into account DBMS requirements in their own development plans citation needed Databases and DBMSs can be categorized according to the database model s that they support such as relational or XML the type s of computer they run on from a server cluster to a mobile phone the query language s used to access the database such as SQL or XQuery and their internal engineering which affects performance scalability resilience and security Applications edit This section does not cite any references sources Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed March Databases are used to support internal operations of organizations and to underpin online interactions with customers and suppliers see Enterprise software Databases are used to hold administrative information and more specialized data such as engineering data or economic models Examples of database applications include computerized library systems flight reservation systems computerized parts inventory systems and many content management systems that store websites as collections of webpages in a database General purpose and special purpose DBMSs edit A DBMS has evolved into a complex software system and its development typically requires thousands of person years of development effort Some general purpose DBMSs such as Adabas Oracle and DB have been undergoing upgrades since the s General purpose DBMSs aim to meet the needs of as many applications as possible which adds to the complexity However the fact that their development cost can be spread over a large number of users means that they are often the most cost effective approach However a general purpose DBMS is not always the optimal solution in some cases a general purpose DBMS may introduce unnecessary overhead Therefore there are many examples of systems that use special purpose databases A common example is an email system that performs many of the functions of a general purpose DBMS such as the insertion and deletion of messages composed of various items of data or associating messages with a particular email address but these functions are limited to what is required to handle email and don t provide the user with the all of the functionality that would be available using a general purpose DBMS Many other databases have application software that accesses the database on behalf of end users without exposing the DBMS interface directly Application programmers may use a wire protocol directly or more likely through an application programming interface Database designers and database administrators interact with the DBMS through dedicated interfaces to build and maintain the applications databases and thus need some more knowledge and understanding about how DBMSs operate and the DBMSs external interfaces and tuning parameters History edit Following the technology progress in the areas of processors computer memory computer storage and computer networks the sizes capabilities and performance of databases and their respective DBMSs have grown in orders of magnitude The development of database technology can be divided into three eras based on data model or structure navigational SQL relational and post relational The two main early navigational data models were the hierarchical model epitomized by IBM s IMS system and the CODASYL model network model implemented in a number of products such as IDMS The relational model first proposed in by Edgar F Codd departed from this tradition by insisting that applications should search for data by content rather than by following links The relational model employs sets of ledger style tables each used for a different type of entity Only in the mid s did computing hardware become powerful enough to allow the wide deployment of relational systems DBMSs plus applications By the early s however relational systems dominated in all large scale data processing applications and as of update they remain dominant IBM DB Oracle MySQL and Microsoft SQL Server are the top DBMS The dominant database language standardised SQL for the relational model has influenced database languages for other data models citation needed Object databases were developed in the s to overcome the inconvenience of object relational impedance mismatch which led to the coining of the term "post relational" and also the development of hybrid object relational databases The next generation of post relational databases in the late s became known as NoSQL databases introducing fast key value stores and document oriented databases A competing "next generation" known as NewSQL databases attempted new implementations that retained the relational SQL model while aiming to match the high performance of NoSQL compared to commercially available relational DBMSs s navigational DBMS edit Further information Navigational database Basic structure of navigational CODASYL database modelThe introduction of the term database coincided with the availability of direct access storage disks and drums from the mid s onwards The term represented a contrast with the tape based systems of the past allowing shared interactive use rather than daily batch processing The Oxford English Dictionary cites a report by the System Development Corporation of California as the first to use the term "data base" in a specific technical sense As computers grew in speed and capability a number of general purpose database systems emerged by the mid s a number of such systems had come into commercial use Interest in a standard began to grow and Charles Bachman author of one such product the Integrated Data Store IDS founded the "Database Task Group" within CODASYL the group responsible for the creation and standardization of COBOL In the Database Task Group delivered their standard which generally became known as the "CODASYL approach" and soon a number of commercial products based on this approach entered the market The CODASYL approach relied on the "manual" navigation of a linked data set which was formed into a large network Applications could find records by one of three methods Use of a primary key known as a CALC key typically implemented by hashing Navigating relationships called sets from one record to another Scanning all the records in a sequential order Later systems added B trees to provide alternate access paths Many CODASYL databases also added a very straightforward query language However in the final tally CODASYL was very complex and required significant training and effort to produce useful applications IBM also had their own DBMS in known as Information Management System IMS IMS was a development of software written for the Apollo program on the System IMS was generally similar in concept to CODASYL but used a strict hierarchy for its model of data navigation instead of CODASYL s network model Both concepts later became known as navigational databases due to the way data was accessed and Bachman s Turing Award presentation was The Programmer as Navigator IMS is classified by whom as a hierarchical database IDMS and Cincom Systems TOTAL database are classified as network databases IMS remains in use as of update s relational DBMS edit Edgar Codd worked at IBM in San Jose California in one of their offshoot offices that was primarily involved in the development of hard disk systems He was unhappy with the navigational model of the CODASYL approach notably the lack of a "search" facility In he wrote a number of papers that outlined a new approach to database construction that eventually culminated in the groundbreaking A Relational Model of Data for Large Shared Data Banks In this paper he described a new system for storing and working with large databases Instead of records being stored in some sort of linked list of free form records as in CODASYL Codd s idea was to use a "table" of fixed length records with each table used for a different type of entity A linked list system would be very inefficient when storing "sparse" databases where some of the data for any one record could be left empty The relational model solved this by splitting the data into a series of normalized tables or relations with optional elements being moved out of the main table to where they would take up room only if needed Data may be freely inserted deleted and edited in these tables with the DBMS doing whatever maintenance needed to present a table view to the application user In the relational model records are "linked" using virtual keys not stored in the database but defined as needed between the data contained in the records The relational model also allowed the content of the database to evolve without constant rewriting of links and pointers The relational part comes from entities referencing other entities in what is known as one to many relationship like a traditional hierarchical model and many to many relationship like a navigational network model Thus a relational model can express both hierarchical and navigational models as well as its native tabular model allowing for pure or combined modeling in terms of these three models as the application requires For instance a common use of a database system is to track information about users their name login information various addresses and phone numbers In the navigational approach all of these data would be placed in a single record and unused items would simply not be placed in the database In the relational approach the data would be normalized into a user table an address table and a phone number table for instance Records would be created in these optional tables only if the address or phone numbers were actually provided Linking the information back together is the key to this system In the relational model some bit of information was used as a "key" uniquely defining a particular record When information was being collected about a user information stored in the optional tables would be found by searching for this key For instance if the login name of a user is unique addresses and phone numbers for that user would be recorded with the login name as its key This simple "re linking" of related data back into a single collection is something that traditional computer languages are not designed for Just as the navigational approach would require programs to loop in order to collect records the relational approach would require loops to collect information about any one record Codd s solution to the necessary looping was a set oriented language a suggestion that would later spawn the ubiquitous SQL Using a branch of mathematics known as tuple calculus he demonstrated that such a system could support all the operations of normal databases inserting updating etc as well as providing a simple system for finding and returning sets of data in a single operation Codd s paper was picked up by two people at Berkeley Eugene Wong and Michael Stonebraker They started a project known as INGRES using funding that had already been allocated for a geographical database project and student programmers to produce code Beginning in INGRES delivered its first test products which were generally ready for widespread use in INGRES was similar to System R in a number of ways including the use of a "language" for data access known as QUEL Over time INGRES moved to the emerging SQL standard IBM itself did one test implementation of the relational model PRTV and a production one Business System both now discontinued Honeywell wrote MRDS for Multics and now there are two new implementations Alphora Dataphor and Rel Most other DBMS implementations usually called relational are actually SQL DBMSs In the University of Michigan began development of the MICRO Information Management System based on D L Childs Set Theoretic Data model Micro was used to manage very large data sets by the US Department of Labor the U S Environmental Protection Agency and researchers from the University of Alberta the University of Michigan and Wayne State University It ran on IBM mainframe computers using the Michigan Terminal System The system remained in production until Integrated approach edit Main article Database machine In the s and s attempts were made to build database systems with integrated hardware and software The underlying philosophy was that such integration would provide higher performance at lower cost Examples were IBM System the early offering of Teradata and the Britton Lee Inc database machine Another approach to hardware support for database management was ICL s CAFS accelerator a hardware disk controller with programmable search capabilities In the long term these efforts were generally unsuccessful because specialized database machines could not keep pace with the rapid development and progress of general purpose computers Thus most database systems nowadays are software systems running on general purpose hardware using general purpose computer data storage However this idea is still pursued for certain applications by some companies like Netezza and Oracle Exadata Late s SQL DBMS edit IBM started working on a prototype system loosely based on Codd s concepts as System R in the early s The first version was ready in and work then started on multi table systems in which the data could be split so that all of the data for a record some of which is optional did not have to be stored in a single large "chunk" Subsequent multi user versions were tested by customers in and by which time a standardized query language – SQL citation needed – had been added Codd s ideas were establishing themselves as both workable and superior to CODASYL pushing IBM to develop a true production version of System R known as SQL DS and later Database DB Larry Ellison s Oracle started from a different chain based on IBM s papers on System R and beat IBM to market when the first version was released in citation needed Stonebraker went on to apply the lessons from INGRES to develop a new database Postgres which is now known as PostgreSQL PostgreSQL is often used for global mission critical applications the org and info domain name registries use it as their primary data store as do many large companies and financial institutions In Sweden Codd s paper was also read and Mimer SQL was developed from the mid s at Uppsala University In this project was consolidated into an independent enterprise In the early s Mimer introduced transaction handling for high robustness in applications an idea that was subsequently implemented on most other DBMSs Another data model the entity–relationship model emerged in and gained popularity for database design as it emphasized a more familiar description than the earlier relational model Later on entity–relationship constructs were retrofitted as a data modeling construct for the relational model and the difference between the two have become irrelevant citation needed s on the desktop edit The s ushered in the age of desktop computing The new computers empowered their users with spreadsheets like Lotus and database software like dBASE The dBASE product was lightweight and easy for any computer user to understand out of the box C Wayne Ratliff the creator of dBASE stated "dBASE was different from programs like BASIC C FORTRAN and COBOL in that a lot of the dirty work had already been done The data manipulation is done by dBASE instead of by the user so the user can concentrate on what he is doing rather than having to mess with the dirty details of opening reading and closing files and managing space allocation " dBASE was one of the top selling software titles in the s and early s s object oriented edit The s along with a rise in object oriented programming saw a growth in how data in various databases were handled Programmers and designers began to treat the data in their databases as objects That is to say that if a person s data were in a database that person s attributes such as their address phone number and age were now considered to belong to that person instead of being extraneous data This allows for relations between data to be relations to objects and their attributes and not to individual fields The term "object relational impedance mismatch" described the inconvenience of translating between programmed objects and database tables Object databases and object relational databases attempt to solve this problem by providing an object oriented language sometimes as extensions to SQL that programmers can use as alternative to purely relational SQL On the programming side libraries known as object relational mappings ORMs attempt to solve the same problem s NoSQL and NewSQL edit Main articles NoSQL and NewSQL The next generation of post relational databases in the s became known as NoSQL databases including fast key value stores and document oriented databases XML databases are a type of structured document oriented database that allows querying based on XML document attributes XML databases are mostly used in enterprise database management where XML is being used as the machine to machine data interoperability standard XML database management systems include commercial software MarkLogic and Oracle Berkeley DB XML and a free use software Clusterpoint Distributed XML JSON Database All are enterprise software database platforms and support industry standard ACID compliant transaction processing with strong database consistency characteristics and high level of database security NoSQL databases are often very fast do not require fixed table schemas avoid join operations by storing denormalized data and are designed to scale horizontally The most popular NoSQL systems include MongoDB Couchbase Riak Memcached Redis CouchDB Hazelcast Apache Cassandra and HBase which are all open source software products In recent years there was a high demand for massively distributed databases with high partition tolerance but according to the CAP theorem it is impossible for a distributed system to simultaneously provide consistency availability and partition tolerance guarantees A distributed system can satisfy any two of these guarantees at the same time but not all three For that reason many NoSQL databases are using what is called eventual consistency to provide both availability and partition tolerance guarantees with a reduced level of data consistency NewSQL is a class of modern relational databases that aims to provide the same scalable performance of NoSQL systems for online transaction processing read write workloads while still using SQL and maintaining the ACID guarantees of a traditional database system Such databases include ScaleBase Clustrix EnterpriseDB MemSQL NuoDB and VoltDB Research edit Database technology has been an active research topic since the s both in academia and in the research and development groups of companies for example IBM Research Research activity includes theory and development of prototypes Notable research topics have included models the atomic transaction concept and related concurrency control techniques query languages and query optimization methods RAID and more The database research area has several dedicated academic journals for example ACM Transactions on Database Systems TODS Data and Knowledge Engineering DKE and annual conferences e g ACM SIGMOD ACM PODS VLDB IEEE ICDE Examples edit One way to classify databases involves the type of their contents for example bibliographic document text statistical or multimedia objects Another way is by their application area for example accounting music compositions movies banking manufacturing or insurance A third way is by some technical aspect such as the database structure or interface type This section lists a few of the adjectives used to characterize different kinds of databases An in memory database is a database that primarily resides in main memory but is typically backed up by non volatile computer data storage Main memory databases are faster than disk databases and so are often used where response time is critical such as in telecommunications network equipment SAP HANA platform is a very hot topic for in memory database By May HANA was able to run on servers with TB main memory powered by IBM The co founder of the company claimed that the system was big enough to run the largest SAP customers An active database includes an event driven architecture which can respond to conditions both inside and outside the database Possible uses include security monitoring alerting statistics gathering and authorization Many databases provide active database features in the form of database triggers A cloud database relies on cloud technology Both the database and most of its DBMS reside remotely "in the cloud" while its applications are both developed by programmers and later maintained and utilized by application s end users through a web browser and Open APIs Data warehouses archive data from operational databases and often from external sources such as market research firms The warehouse becomes the central source of data for use by managers and other end users who may not have access to operational data For example sales data might be aggregated to weekly totals and converted from internal product codes to use UPCs so that they can be compared with ACNielsen data Some basic and essential components of data warehousing include extracting analyzing and mining data transforming loading and managing data so as to make them available for further use A deductive database combines logic programming with a relational database for example by using the Datalog language A distributed database is one in which both the data and the DBMS span multiple computers A document oriented database is designed for storing retrieving and managing document oriented or semi structured data information Document oriented databases are one of the main categories of NoSQL databases An embedded database system is a DBMS which is tightly integrated with an application software that requires access to stored data in such a way that the DBMS is hidden from the application s end users and requires little or no ongoing maintenance End user databases consist of data developed by individual end users Examples of these are collections of documents spreadsheets presentations multimedia and other files Several products exist to support such databases Some of them are much simpler than full fledged DBMSs with more elementary DBMS functionality A federated database system comprises several distinct databases each with its own DBMS It is handled as a single database by a federated database management system FDBMS which transparently integrates multiple autonomous DBMSs possibly of different types in which case it would also be a heterogeneous database system and provides them with an integrated conceptual view Sometimes the term multi database is used as a synonym to federated database though it may refer to a less integrated e g without an FDBMS and a managed integrated schema group of databases that cooperate in a single application In this case typically middleware is used for distribution which typically includes an atomic commit protocol ACP e g the two phase commit protocol to allow distributed global transactions across the participating databases A graph database is a kind of NoSQL database that uses graph structures with

nodes edges and properties to represent and store information General graph databases that can store any graph are distinct from specialized graph databases such as triplestores and network databases An array DBMS is a kind of NoSQL DBMS that allows to model store and retrieve usually large multi dimensional arrays such as satellite images and climate simulation output In a hypertext or hypermedia database any word or a piece of text representing an object e g another piece of text an article a picture or a film can be hyperlinked to that object Hypertext databases are particularly useful for organizing large amounts of disparate information For example they are useful for organizing online encyclopedias where users can conveniently jump around the text The World Wide Web is thus a large distributed hypertext database A knowledge base abbreviated KB kb or ? is a special kind of database for knowledge management providing the means for the computerized collection organization and retrieval of knowledge Also a collection of data representing problems with their solutions and related experiences A mobile database can be carried on or synchronized from a mobile computing device Operational databases store detailed data about the operations of an organization They typically process relatively high volumes of updates using transactions Examples include customer databases that record contact credit and demographic information about a business customers personnel databases that hold information such as salary benefits skills data about employees enterprise resource planning systems that record details about product components parts inventory and financial databases that keep track of the organization s money accounting and financial dealings A parallel database seeks to improve performance through parallelization for tasks such as loading data building indexes and evaluating queries The major parallel DBMS architectures which are induced by the underlying hardware architecture are Shared memory architecture where multiple processors share the main memory space as well as other data storage Shared disk architecture where each processing unit typically consisting of multiple processors has its own main memory but all units share the other storage Shared nothing architecture where each processing unit has its own main memory and other storage Probabilistic databases employ fuzzy logic to draw inferences from imprecise data Real time databases process transactions fast enough for the result to come back and be acted on right away A spatial database can store the data with multidimensional features The queries on such data include location based queries like "Where is the closest hotel in my area " A temporal database has built in time aspects for example a temporal data model and a temporal version of SQL More specifically the temporal aspects usually include valid time and transaction time A terminology oriented database builds upon an object oriented database often customized for a specific field An unstructured data database is intended to store in a manageable and protected way diverse objects that do not fit naturally and conveniently in common databases It may include email messages documents journals multimedia objects etc The name may be misleading since some objects can be highly structured However the entire possible object collection does not fit into a predefined structured framework Most established DBMSs now support unstructured data in various ways and new dedicated DBMSs are emerging Design and modeling edit Main article Database design The first task of a database designer is to produce a conceptual data model that reflects the structure of the information to be held in the database A common approach to this is to develop an entity relationship model often with the aid of drawing tools Another popular approach is the Unified Modeling Language A successful data model will accurately reflect the possible state of the external world being modeled for example if people can have more than one phone number it will allow this information to be captured Designing a good conceptual data model requires a good understanding of the application domain it typically involves asking deep questions about the things of interest to an organisation like "can a customer also be a supplier " or "if a product is sold with two different forms of packaging are those the same product or different products " or "if a plane flies from New York to Dubai via Frankfurt is that one flight or two or maybe even three " The answers to these questions establish definitions of the terminology used for entities customers products flights flight segments and their relationships and attributes Producing the conceptual data model sometimes involves input from business processes or the analysis of workflow in the organization This can help to establish what information is needed in the database and what can be left out For example it can help when deciding whether the database needs to hold historic data as well as current data Having produced a conceptual data model that users are happy with the next stage is to translate this into a schema that implements the relevant data structures within the database This process is often called logical database design and the output is a logical data model expressed in the form of a schema Whereas the conceptual data model is in theory at least independent of the choice of database technology the logical data model will be expressed in terms of a particular database model supported by the chosen DBMS The terms data model and database model are often used interchangeably but in this article we use data model for the design of a specific database and database model for the modelling notation used to express that design The most popular database model for general purpose databases is the relational model or more precisely the relational model as represented by the SQL language The process of creating a logical database design using this model uses a methodical approach known as normalization The goal of normalization is to ensure that each elementary "fact" is only recorded in one place so that insertions updates and deletions automatically maintain consistency The final stage of database design is to make the decisions that affect performance scalability recovery security and the like This is often called physical database design A key goal during this stage is data independence meaning that the decisions made for performance optimization purposes should be invisible to end users and applications Physical design is driven mainly by performance requirements and requires a good knowledge of the expected workload and access patterns and a deep understanding of the features offered by the chosen DBMS Another aspect of physical database design is security It involves both defining access control to database objects as well as defining security levels and methods for the data itself Models edit Main article Database model Collage of five types of database modelsA database model is a type of data model that determines the logical structure of a database and fundamentally determines in which manner data can be stored organized and manipulated The most popular example of a database model is the relational model or the SQL approximation of relational which uses a table based format Common logical data models for databases include Navigational databases Hierarchical database model Network model Graph database Relational model Entity–relationship model Enhanced entity–relationship model Object model Document model Entity–attribute–value model Star schema An object relational database combines the two related structures Physical data models include Inverted index Flat file Other models include Associative model Multidimensional model Array model Multivalue model Specialized models are optimized for particular types of data XML database Semantic model Content store Event store Time series model External conceptual and internal views edit Traditional view of data A database management system provides three views of the database data The external level defines how each group of end users sees the organization of data in the database A single database can have any number of views at the external level The conceptual level unifies the various external views into a compatible global view It provides the synthesis of all the external views It is out of the scope of the various database end users and is rather of interest to database application developers and database administrators The internal level or physical level is the internal organization of data inside a DBMS see Implementation section below It is concerned with cost performance scalability and other operational matters It deals with storage layout of the data using storage structures such as indexes to enhance performance Occasionally it stores data of individual views materialized views computed from generic data if performance justification exists for such redundancy It balances all the external views performance requirements possibly conflicting in an attempt to optimize overall performance across all activities While there is typically only one conceptual or logical and physical or internal view of the data there can be any number of different external views This allows users to see database information in a more business related way rather than from a technical processing viewpoint For example a financial department of a company needs the payment details of all employees as part of the company s expenses but does not need details about employees that are the interest of the human resources department Thus different departments need different views of the company s database The three level database architecture relates to the concept of data independence which was one of the major initial driving forces of the relational model The idea is that changes made at a certain level do not affect the view at a higher level For example changes in the internal level do not affect application programs written using conceptual level interfaces which reduces the impact of making physical changes to improve performance The conceptual view provides a level of indirection between internal and external On one hand it provides a common view of the database independent of different external view structures and on the other hand it abstracts away details of how the data is stored or managed internal level In principle every level and even every external view can be presented by a different data model In practice usually a given DBMS uses the same data model for both the external and the conceptual levels e g relational model The internal level which is hidden inside the DBMS and depends on its implementation see Implementation section below requires a different level of detail and uses its own types of data structure types Separating the external conceptual and internal levels was a major feature of the relational database model implementations that dominate st century databases Languages edit Database languages are special purpose languages which do one or more of the following Data definition language – defines data types and the relationships among them Data manipulation language – performs tasks such as inserting updating or deleting data occurrences Query language – allows searching for information and computing derived information Database languages are specific to a particular data model Notable examples include SQL combines the roles of data definition data manipulation and query in a single language It was one of the first commercial languages for the relational model although it departs in some respects from the relational model as described by Codd for example the rows and columns of a table can be ordered SQL became a standard of the American National Standards Institute ANSI in and of the International Organization for Standardization ISO in The standards have been regularly enhanced since and is supported with varying degrees of conformance by all mainstream commercial relational DBMSs OQL is an object model language standard from the Object Data Management Group It has influenced the design of some of the newer query languages like JDOQL and EJB QL XQuery is a standard XML query language implemented by XML database systems such as MarkLogic and eXist by relational databases with XML capability such as Oracle and DB and also by in memory XML processors such as Saxon SQL XML combines XQuery with SQL A database language may also incorporate features like DBMS specific Configuration and storage engine management Computations to modify query results like counting summing averaging sorting grouping and cross referencing Constraint enforcement e g in an automotive database only allowing one engine type per car Application programming interface version of the query language for programmer convenience Performance security and availability edit Because of the critical importance of database technology to the smooth running of an enterprise database systems include complex mechanisms to deliver the required performance security and availability and allow database administrators to control the use of these features Storage edit Main articles Computer data storage and Database engine Database storage is the container of the physical materialization of a database It comprises the internal physical level in the database architecture It also contains all the information needed e g metadata "data about the data" and internal data structures to reconstruct the conceptual level and external level from the internal level when needed Putting data into permanent storage is generally the responsibility of the database engine a k a "storage engine" Though typically accessed by a DBMS through the underlying operating system and often utilizing the operating systems file systems as intermediates for storage layout storage properties and configuration setting are extremely important for the efficient operation of the DBMS and thus are closely maintained by database administrators A DBMS while in operation always has its database residing in several types of storage e g memory and external storage The database data and the additional needed information possibly in very large amounts are coded into bits Data typically reside in the storage in structures that look completely different from the way the data look in the conceptual and external levels but in ways that attempt to optimize the best possible these levels reconstruction when needed by users and programs as well as for computing additional types of needed information from the data e g when querying the database Some DBMSs support specifying which character encoding was used to store data so multiple encodings can be used in the same database Various low level database storage structures are used by the storage engine to serialize the data model so it can be written to the medium of choice Techniques such as indexing may be used to improve performance Conventional storage is row oriented but there are also column oriented and correlation databases Materialized views edit Main article Materialized view Often storage redundancy is employed to increase performance A common example is storing materialized views which consist of frequently needed external views or query results Storing such views saves the expensive computing of them each time they are needed The downsides of materialized views are the overhead incurred when updating them to keep them synchronized with their original updated database data and the cost of storage redundancy Replication edit Main article Database replication Occasionally a database employs storage redundancy by database objects replication with one or more copies to increase data availability both to improve performance of simultaneous multiple end user accesses to a same database object and to provide resiliency in a case of partial failure of a distributed database Updates of a replicated object need to be synchronized across the object copies In many cases the entire database is replicated Security edit The following text needs to be harmonized with text in Database security March Main article Database security Database security deals with all various aspects of protecting the database content its owners and its users It ranges from protection from intentional unauthorized database uses to unintentional database accesses by unauthorized entities e g a person or a computer program