8. To set forth, for permanent record to be published to the world, an accurate and authoritative account of the present condition and outlook of religion among the leading nations of the earth. 9. To discover, from competent men, what light religion has to throw on the great problems of the present age, especially the important questions connected with temperance, labor, education, wealth and poverty. 10. To bring the nations of the earth into a more friendly fellowship, in the hope of securing permanent international peace.[2] Dignitaries Gracing the Conference[edit] [icon] This section is empty. You can help by adding to it. (May 2013) Main Participants and Religious Representatives[edit] Hazrat Khalifatul Masih II (Ahmadiyya Muslim Community)[citation needed] Sir Francis Young-Husband Pandit Shyam Shankar Al-Haj Khwaja Kamal-ud-Din Mustafa Khan Sheikh Kahdim El Dojaily Sufi Hafiz Raushan Ali Dr. W.A. de Silva Mr. G.P. Malalasekera Mr. Shoson Miyamoto Shams-ul-Ulema Dastur Kaikobad Adarbad Noshirvan Rai Bahadur Jagmander Lal Jaini Sardar Kahan Singh Mr. Hsu Ti-Shan Mr. N.C. Sen Professor S.N. Pherwani There have been several meetings referred to as a Parliament of the World's Religions, the first being the World's Parliament of Religions of 1893, which was an attempt to create a global dialogue of faiths. The event was celebrated by another conference on its centenary in 1993. This led to a new series of conferences under the official title (Parliament of the World's Religions). Contents [hide] 1 Organization 2 History 2.1 1893 Parliament 2.2 1930s 2.3 1993 Parliament 2.4 1999 Parliament 2.5 2004 Parliament 2.6 2007 Monterrey Forum of Cultures 2.7 2009 Parliament 2.8 2014 Parliament 2.9 2015 Parliament 3 Criticism

4 See also 5 Further reading 6 References 7 External links Organization[edit] An organization was incorporated in 1988 to carry out the tradition of the Parliament of the World's Religions by marking the centennial of the first Parliament. Council for a Parliament of the World's Religions[1] is headquartered in Chicago. Its stated mission is "... to cultivate harmony among the world's religious and spiritual communities and foster their engagement with the world and its guiding institutions in order to achieve a just, peaceful and sustainable world.".[2] Its board of trustees are elected from various faith communities. The Parliament it is chaired[3] by Imam Abdul Malik Mujahid.[4] Rev. Dr. Larry Greenfield serves as its Vice Chair and Interim Executive Director.[5] History[edit] 1893 Parliament[edit] Swami Vivekananda on the platform of the Parliament of Religions September 1893. On the platform (left to right) Virchand Gandhi, Dharmapala, Swami Vivekananda[6] In 1893, the city of Chicago hosted the World Columbian Exposition, an early world's fair. So many people were coming to Chicago from all over the world that many smaller conferences, called Congresses and Parliaments, were scheduled to take advantage of this unprecedented gathering. A number of congresses were held in conjunction with the exposition, including those dealing with anthropology (one of the major themes of Exposition exhibits), labor, medicine, temperance, commerce and finance, literature, history, art, philosophy, and science. One of these was the World's Parliament of Religions, an initiative of the Swedenborgian layman (and judge) Charles C. Bonney.[7][8] The Parliament of Religions was by far the largest of the congresses held in conjunction with the Exposition.[9] John Henry Barrows, a clergyman, was appointed as the first chairman of the General Committee of the 1893 Parliament by Charles Carroll Bonney.[10] Everlasting Man is a Christian apologetics book written by G. K. Chesterton, published in 1925. It is, to some extent, a deliberate rebuttal of H. G. Wells' The Outline of History, disputing Wells' portrayals of human life and civilization as a seamless development from animal life and of Jesus Christ as merely another charismatic figure. Chesterton detailed his own spiritual journey in Orthodoxy, but in this book he tries to illustrate the spiritual journey of humanity, or at least of Western civilization. Contents [hide] Christianity Today magazine is an evangelical Christian periodical that was founded in 1956 and is based in Carol Stream, Illinois. The Washington Post calls Christianity Today, "evangelicalism’s flagship magazine."[2] Christianity Today magazine has a print circulation of 130,000 and readership of 260,000,[1] as well as a website at ChristianityToday.com.[3] The founder, Billy Graham, stated that he wanted to "plant the evangelical flag in the middle-of-the-road, taking the conservative theological position but a definite liberal approach to social problems".[4] Graham started the magazine as counterpoint to The Christian Century, the predominant independent periodical of mainline Protestantism, and as a way to bring the evangelical Christian community together.[4][5] The New York Times describes Christianity Today as a "mainstream evangelical magazine."[6] Contents [hide] 1 History 2 About the Ministry 2.1 International editions 2.2 Books & Culture Evangelicalism, Evangelical Christianity, or Evangelical Protestantism[a] is a worldwide, transdenominational movement within Protestant Christianity, maintaining that the essence of the gospel consists in the doctrine of salvation by grace through faith in Jesus Christ's atonement.[1][2] Evangelicals are Christians who believe in the centrality of the conversion or "born again" experience in receiving salvation, believe in the authority of the Bible as God's revelation to humanity and have a strong commitment to evangelism or sharing the Christian message. It gained great momentum in the 18th and 19th centuries with the emergence of Methodism and the Great Awakenings in Britain and North America. The origins of Evangelicalism are usually traced back to the English Methodist movement, Nicolaus Zinzendorf, the Moravian Church, Lutheran pietism, Presbyterianism and Puritanism.[3] Among leaders and major figures of the Evangelical Protestant movement were John Wesley, George Whitefield, Jonathan Edwards, Billy Graham, Harold John Ockenga, John Stott and Martyn Lloyd-Jones. There are an estimated 285,480,000 Evangelicals, corresponding to 13.1% of the Christian population and 4.1% of the total world population.[4] The Americas, Africa and Asia are home to the majority of Evangelicals. The United States has the largest concentration of Evangelicals.[5] Evangelicalism is gaining popularity both in and outside the English-speaking world, especially in Latin America and the developing world. Contents [hide] 1 Usage 2 Characteristics 3 Diversity 3.1 Fundamentalism 3.2 Mainstream varieties 3.3 Non-conservative varieties 4 History 4.1 Background 4.2 18th century 4.3 19th century 4.4 20th century 5 Global statistics 6 Africa 7 Latin America 7.1 Brazil 7.2 Guatemala 8 Asia 8.1 Korea 9 United Kingdom 10 United States 10.1 20th century 10.2 Meaning of Evangelicalism in the US 10.3 Demographics 10.4 Types of Evangelical 10.5 Politics 10.5.1 Christian right 10.5.2 Christian left 10.6 Recurrent themes 10.6.1 Abortion 10.6.2 Secularism 10.6.3 Christian nation 10.6.4 Media references 10.6.5 Other issues 11 See also 12 Footnotes 13 Notes 14 Bibliography 15 Further reading 15.1 Missions 16 External links Usage[edit] The word evangelical has its etymological roots in the Greek word for "gospel" or "good news": e’?a??????? (evangelion), from eu- "good" and angelion "message". By the English Middle Ages the term had expanded semantically to include not only the message, but also the New Testament which contained the message, as well as more specifically the Gospels which portray the life, death and resurrection of Jesus.[6] The first published use of evangelical in English came in 1531 when William Tyndale wrote "He exhorteth them to proceed constantly in the evangelical truth." One year later Sir Thomas More produced the earliest recorded use in reference to a theological distinction when he spoke of "Tyndale [and] his evangelical brother Barns".[7] During the Reformation, Protestant theologians embraced the label as referring to "gospel truth". Martin Luther referred to the evangelische Kirche ("evangelical church) to distinguish Protestants from Catholics in the Roman Catholic Church.[8][9] Into the 21st century, evangelical has continued in use as a synonym for (mainline) Protestant in continental Europe. This usage is reflected in the names of Protestant denominations such as the Evangelical Church in Germany (a union of Lutheran and Reformed churches) and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America.[6] In the English-speaking world, evangelical became a common label used to describe the series of revival movements that occurred in Britain and North America during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.[10] Christian historian David Bebbington writes that, "Although 'evangelical', with a lower-case initial, is occasionally used to mean 'of the gospel', the term 'Evangelical', with a capital letter, is applied to any aspect of the movement beginning in the 1730s."[11] The term may also occur outside any religious context to characterize a generic missionary, reforming, or redeeming impulse or purpose. For example, the Times Literary Supplement refers to "the rise and fall of evangelical fervor within the Socialist movement".[12] Characteristics[edit] One influential definition of Evangelicalism has been proposed by historian David Bebbington.[13] Bebbington notes four distinctive aspects of Evangelical faith: conversionism, biblicism, crucicentrism, and activism, noting, "Together they form a quadrilateral of priorities that is the basis of Evangelicalism."[14] Conversionism, or belief in the necessity of being "born again", has been a constant theme of Evangelicalism since its beginnings. To Evangelicals, the central message of the gospel is justification by faith in Christ and repentance, or turning away, from sin. Conversion differentiates the Christian from the non-Christian, and the change in life it leads to is marked by both a rejection of sin and a corresponding personal holiness of life. A conversion experience can be emotional, including grief and sorrow for sin followed by great relief at receiving forgiveness. The stress on conversion is further differentiated from other forms of Protestantism by the belief that an assurance of salvation will accompany conversion. Among Evangelicals, individuals have testified to both sudden and gradual conversions.[15] Biblicism is defined as having a reverence for the Bible and a high regard for biblical authority. All Evangelicals believe in biblical inspiration, though they disagree over how this inspiration should be defined. Many Evangelicals believe in biblical inerrancy, while other Evangelicals believe in biblical infallibility.[16] Crucicentrism refers to the attention that Evangelicals give to the Atonement, the saving death and resurrection of Jesus, that offers forgiveness of sins and new life. This is understood most commonly in terms of a substitutionary atonement, in which Christ died as a substitute for sinful humanity by taking on himself the guilt and punishment for sin.[17] Activism describes the tendency towards active expression and sharing of the gospel in diverse ways that include preaching and social action. This aspect of Evangelicalism continues to be seen today in the proliferation of Evangelical voluntary religious groups and parachurch organizations.[18] Diversity[edit] Protestantism 95Thesen.jpg (The Ninety-Five Theses) The Reformation History Culture Demographics Ecumenism Major branches Adventism Anabaptism Anglicanism Baptist churches Calvinism (Reformed tradition) Lutheranism Methodism Pentecostalism Other Protestant branches Transdenominational movements Evangelicalism Charismatic movement Neo-charismatic churches v t e As a trans-denominational movement, Evangelicalism occurs in nearly every Protestant denomination and tradition. The Reformed, Baptist, Wesleyan, and Pentecostal traditions have all had strong influence within modern Evangelicalism.[19] Evangelicals are also represented within the Anabaptist, Anglican and Lutheran traditions.[20] The early 20th century saw the decline of Evangelical influence within mainline Protestantism and the development of Christian fundamentalism as a distinct religious movement. The second half of the century witnessed the development of a new mainstream Evangelical consensus that sought to be more inclusive and more culturally relevant than fundamentalism, while maintaining conservative Protestant teaching. According to professor of world Christianity Brian Stanley, this new postwar consensus is termed "Neo-Evangelicalism", the "New Evangelicalism", or simply "Evangelicalism" in the United States, while in the United Kingdom and in other English-speaking countries it is commonly termed conservative Evangelicalism. Over the years, less conservative Evangelicals have challenged this mainstream consensus to varying degrees, and such movements have been described by a variety of labels, such as progressive, open, post-conservative, and post-evangelical.[21] Fundamentalism[edit] Fundamentalism regards biblical inerrancy, the virgin birth of Jesus, penal substitutionary atonement, the literal resurrection of Christ and the Second Coming of Christ as fundamental Christian doctrines.[22] Fundamentalism arose among Evangelicals in the 1920s to combat modernist or liberal theology in mainline Protestant churches. Failing to reform the mainline churches, fundamentalists separated from them and established their own churches, refusing to participate in ecumenical organizations such as the National Council of Churches. They also made separatism (rigid separation from non-fundamentalist churches and culture) a true test of faith. According to historian George Marsden, most fundamentalists are Baptists and dispensationalist.[23] Mainstream varieties[edit] Mainstream Evangelicalism is historically divided between two main orientations: confessionalism and revivalism. These two streams have been critical of each other. Confessional Evangelicals have been suspicious of unguarded religious experience, while revivalist Evangelicals have been critical of overly intellectual teaching that (they suspect) stifles vibrant spirituality.[24] In an effort to broaden their appeal, many contemporary Evangelical congregations intentionally avoid identifying with any single form of Evangelicalism. These "generic Evangelicals" are usually theologically and socially conservative, but their churches often present themselves as nondenominational within the broader Evangelical movement.[25] In the words of Albert Mohler, president of the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, confessional Evangelicalism refers to "that movement of Christian believers who seek a constant convictional continuity with the theological formulas of the Protestant Reformation". While approving of the Evangelical distinctives proposed by Bebbington, confessional Evangelicals believe that authentic Evangelicalism requires more concrete definition in order to protect the movement from theological liberalism and from heresy. This protection, according to confessional Evangelicals, is found in subscription to the ecumenical creeds and to the Reformation-era confessions of faith (such as the confessions of the Reformed churches).[26] Confessional Evangelicals are represented by conservative Presbyterian churches (emphasizing the Westminster Confession), certain Baptist churches that emphasize historic Baptist confessions like the Second London Confession, Anglicans who emphasize the Thirty-Nine Articles (such as in the Anglican Diocese of Sydney, Australia[27]), and some confessional Lutherans with pietistic convictions.[28][20] The emphasis on historic Protestant orthodoxy among confessional Evangelicals stands in direct contrast to an anti-creedal outlook that has exerted its own influence on Evangelicalism, particularly among churches heavily influenced by revivalism and by pietism. Revivalist Evangelicals are represented by some quarters of Methodism, the Wesleyan Holiness churches, the Pentecostal/charismatic churches, some Anabaptist churches, and some Baptists and Presbyterians.[20] Revivalist Evangelicals tend to place greater emphasis on religious experience than their confessional counterparts.[24] Non-conservative varieties[edit] Evangelicals dissatisfied with the movement's conservative mainstream have been variously described as progressive Evangelicals, post-conservative Evangelicals, Open Evangelicals and Post-evangelicals. Progressive Evangelicals, also known as the Evangelical left, share theological or social views with other progressive Christians, while also identifying with Evangelicalism. Progressive Evangelicals commonly advocate for women's equality, pacifism and social justice.[29] As described by Baptist theologian Roger E. Olson, post-conservative Evangelicalism is a theological school of thought that adheres to the four marks of Evangelicalism, while being less rigid and more inclusive of other Christians. According to Olson, post-conservatives believe that doctrine and propositional truth is secondary to spiritual experience shaped by Scripture. Post-conservative Evangelicals seek greater dialogue with other Christian traditions and support the development of a multicultural Evangelical theology that incorporates the voices of women, racial minorities, and Christians in the developing world. Some post-conservative Evangelicals also support Open Theism and the possibility of near universal salvation.[30] The term "Open Evangelical" refers to a particular Christian school of thought or churchmanship, primarily in the United Kingdom (especially in the Church of England). Open Evangelicals describe their position as combining a traditional Evangelical emphasis on the nature of scriptural authority, the teaching of the ecumenical creeds and other traditional doctrinal teachings, with an approach towards culture and other theological points-of-view which tends to be more inclusive than that taken by other Evangelicals. Some Open Evangelicals aim to take a middle position between conservative and charismatic Evangelicals, while others would combine conservative theological emphases with more liberal social positions.[31] British author Dave Tomlinson coined the phrase "post-evangelical" to describe a movement comprising various trends of dissatisfaction among Evangelicals. Others use the term with comparable intent, often to distinguish Evangelicals in the so-called emerging church movement from post-evangelicals and anti-Evangelicals. Tomlinson argues that "linguistically, the distinction [between evangelical and post-evangelical] resembles the one that sociologists make between the modern and postmodern eras".[32] History[edit] Background[edit] Evangelicalism did not take recognizable form until the 18th century, first in Britain and its North American colonies. Nevertheless, there were earlier developments within the larger Protestant world that preceded and influenced the later evangelical revivals. According to religion scholar, social activist, and politician Randall Balmer, Evangelicalism resulted "from the confluence of Pietism, Presbyterianism, and the vestiges of Puritanism. Evangelicalism picked up the peculiar characteristics from each strain – warmhearted spirituality from the Pietists (for instance), doctrinal precisionism from the Presbyterians, and individualistic introspection from the Puritans".[33] Historian Mark Noll adds to this list High Church Anglicanism, which contributed to Evangelicalism a legacy of "rigorous spirituality and innovative organization".[34] During the 17th century, Pietism emerged in Europe as a movement for the revival of piety and devotion within the Lutheran church. As a protest against "cold orthodoxy" or an overly formal and rational Christianity, Pietists advocated for an experiential religion that stressed high moral standards for both clergy and lay people. The movement included both Christians who remained in the liturgical, state churches as well as separatist groups who rejected the use of baptismal fonts, altars, pulpits, and confessionals. As Pietism spread, the movement's ideals and aspirations influenced and were absorbed into early Evangelicalism.[35] The Presbyterian heritage not only gave Evangelicalism a commitment to Protestant orthodoxy but also contributed a revival tradition that stretched back to the 1620s in Scotland and Northern Ireland.[36] Central to this tradition was the communion season, which normally occurred in the summer months. For Presbyterians, celebrations of Holy Communion were infrequent but popular events preceded by several Sundays of preparatory preaching and accompanied with preaching, singing, and prayers.[37] Puritanism combined Calvinism with teaching that conversion was a prerequisite for church membership and a stress on the study of Scripture by lay people. It took root in New England, where the Congregational church was an established religion. The Half-Way Covenant of 1662 allowed parents who had not testified to a conversion experience to have their children baptized, while reserving Holy Communion for converted church members alone.[38] By the 18th century, Puritanism was in decline and many ministers were alarmed at the loss of religious piety. This concern over declining religious commitment led many people to support evangelical revival.[39] High Church Anglicanism also exerted influence on early Evangelicalism. High Churchmen were distinguished by their desire to adhere to primitive Christianity. This desire included imitating the faith and ascetic practices of early Christians as well as regularly partaking of Holy Communion. High Churchmen were also enthusiastic organizers of voluntary religious societies. Two of the most prominent were the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, which distributed Bibles and other literature and built schools, and the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, which was created to facilitate missionary work in British colonies. Samuel and Susanna Wesley, the parents of John and Charles Wesley, were both devoted advocates of High Churchmanship.[40] 18th century[edit] See also: First Great Awakening Jonathan Edwards' account of the revival in Northampton was published in 1737 as A Faithful Narrative of the Surprising Work of God in the Conversion of Many Hundred Souls in Northampton. In the 1730s, Evangelicalism emerged as a distinct phenomenon out of religious revivals that began in Britain and New England. While religious revivals had occurred within Protestant churches in the past, the evangelical revivals that marked the 18th century were more intense and radical.[41] Evangelical revivalism imbued ordinary men and women with a confidence and enthusiasm for sharing the gospel and converting others outside of the control of established churches, a key discontinuity with the Protestantism of the previous era.[42] It was developments in the doctrine of assurance that differentiated Evangelicalism from what went before. Bebbington says, "The dynamism of the Evangelical movement was possible only because its adherents were assured in their faith."[43] He goes on: Whereas the Puritans had held that assurance is rare, late and the fruit of struggle in the experience of believers, the Evangelicals believed it to be general, normally given at conversion and the result of simple acceptance of the gift of God. The consequence of the altered form of the doctrine was a metamorphosis in the nature of popular Protestantism. There was a change in patterns of piety, affecting devotional and practical life in all its departments. The shift, in fact, was responsible for creating in Evangelicalism a new movement and not merely a variation on themes heard since the Reformation.[44] The first local revival occurred in Northampton, Massachusetts, under the leadership of Congregationalist minister Jonathan Edwards. In the fall of 1734, Edwards preached a sermon series on "Justification By Faith Alone", and the community's response was extraordinary. Signs of religious commitment among the laity increased, especially among the town's young people. The revival ultimately spread to 25 communities in western Massachusetts and central Connecticut until it began to wane by the spring of 1735.[45] Edwards was heavily influenced by Pietism, so much so that one historian has stressed his "American Pietism."[46] One practice clearly copied from European Pietists was the use of small groups divided by age and gender, which met in private homes to conserve and promote the fruits of revival.[47] At the same time, students at Yale University (at that time Yale College) in New Haven, Connecticut, were also experiencing revival. Among them was Aaron Burr, who would become a prominent Presbyterian minister and future president of Princeton University. In New Jersey, Gilbert Tennent, another Presbyterian minister, was preaching the evangelical message and urging the Presbyterian Church to stress the necessity of converted ministers.[48] The spring of 1735 also marked important events in England and Wales. Howell Harris, a Welsh schoolteacher, had a conversion experience on May 25 during a communion service. He described receiving assurance of God's grace after a period of fasting, self-examination, and despair over his sins.[49] Sometime later, Daniel Rowland, the Anglican curate of Llangeitho, Wales, experienced conversion as well. Both men began preaching the evangelical message to large audiences, becoming leaders of the Welsh Methodist revival.[50] At about the same time that Harris experienced conversion in Wales, George Whitefield was converted at Oxford University after his own prolonged spiritual crisis. Whitefield later remarked, "About this time God was pleased to enlighten my soul, and bring me into the knowledge of His free grace, and the necessity of being justified in His sight by faith only".[51] John Wesley preaching Whitefield's fellow Holy Club member and spiritual mentor, Charles Wesley, reported an evangelical conversion in 1738.[50] In the same week, Charles' brother and future founder of Methodism, John Wesley was also converted after a long period of inward struggle. During this spiritual crisis, John Wesley was directly influenced by Pietism. Two years before his conversion, Wesley had traveled to the newly established colony of Georgia as a missionary for the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. He shared his voyage with a group of Moravian Brethren led by August Gottlieb Spangenberg. The Moravians' faith and piety deeply impressed Wesley, especially their belief that it was a normal part of Christian life to have an assurance of one's salvation.[52] Wesley recounted the following exchange with Spangenberg on February 7, 1736: [Spangenberg] said, "My brother, I must first ask you one or two questions. Have you the witness within yourself? Does the Spirit of God bear witness with your spirit that you are a child of God?" I was surprised, and knew not what to answer. He observed it, and asked, "Do you know Jesus Christ?" I paused, and said, "I know he is the Savior of the world." "True," he replied, "but do you know he has saved you?" I answered, "I hope he has died to save me." He only added, "Do you know yourself?" I said, "I do." But I fear they were vain words.[53] Wesley finally received the assurance he had been searching for at a meeting of a religious society in London. While listening to a reading from Martin Luther's preface to the Epistle to the Romans, Wesley felt spiritually transformed: About a quarter before nine, while [the speaker] was describing the change which God works in the heart through faith in Christ, I felt my heart strangely warmed. I felt I did trust in Christ, Christ alone for salvation, and an assurance was given me that he had taken away my sins, even mine, and saved me from the law of sin and death.[54] Pietism continued to influence Wesley, who had translated 33 Pietist hymns from German to English. Numerous German Pietist hymns became part of the English Evangelical repertoire.[55] By 1737, Whitefield had become a national celebrity in England where his preaching drew large crowds, especially in London where the Fetter Lane Society had become a center of evangelical activity.[56] Whitfield joined forces with Edwards to "fan the flame of revival" in the Thirteen Colonies in 1739–40. Soon the First Great Awakening stirred Protestants throughout America.[50] Evangelical preachers emphasized personal salvation and piety more than ritual and tradition. Pamphlets and printed sermons crisscrossed the Atlantic, encouraging the revivalists.[57] The Awakening resulted from powerful preaching that gave listeners a sense of deep personal revelation of their need of salvation by Jesus Christ. Pulling away from ritual and ceremony, the Great Awakening made Christianity intensely personal to the average person by fostering a deep sense of spiritual conviction and redemption, and by encouraging introspection and a commitment to a new standard of personal morality. It reached people who were already church members. It changed their rituals, their piety and their self-awareness. To the evangelical imperatives of Reformation Protestantism, 18th century American Christians added emphases on divine outpourings of the Holy Spirit and conversions that implanted within new believers an intense love for God. Revivals encapsulated those hallmarks and forwarded the newly created Evangelicalism into the early republic.[58] 19th century[edit] The start of the 19th century saw an increase in missionary work and many of the major missionary societies were founded around this time (see Timeline of Christian missions). Both the Evangelical and high church movements sponsored missionaries. The Second Great Awakening (which actually began in 1790) was primarily an American revivalist movement and resulted in substantial growth of the Methodist and Baptist churches. Charles Grandison Finney was an important preacher of this period. William Wilberforce, British evangelical abolitionist In Britain in addition to stressing the traditional Wesleyan combination of "Bible, cross, conversion, and activism," the revivalist movement sought a universal appeal, hoping to include rich and poor, urban and rural, and men and women. Special efforts were made to attract children and to generate literature to spread the revivalist message.[59] "Christian conscience" was used by the British Evangelical movement to promote social activism. Evangelicals believed activism in government and the social sphere was an essential method in reaching the goal of eliminating sin in a world drenched in wickedness.[60] The Evangelicals in the Clapham Sect included figures such as William Wilberforce who successfully campaigned for the abolition of slavery. In the late 19th century, the revivalist Holiness movement, based on the doctrine of "entire sanctification," took a more extreme form in rural America and Canada, where it ultimately broke away from institutional Methodism. In urban Britain the Holiness message was less exclusive and censorious.[61] John Nelson Darby was a 19th-century Irish Anglican minister who devised modern dispensationalism, an innovative Protestant theological interpretation of the Bible that was incorporated in the development of modern Evangelicalism. Cyrus Scofield further promoted the influence of dispensationalism through the explanatory notes to his Scofield Reference Bible. According to scholar Mark S. Sweetnam, who takes a cultural studies perspective, dispensationalism can be defined in terms of its Evangelicalism, its insistence on the literal interpretation of Scripture, its recognition of stages in God's dealings with humanity, its expectation of the imminent return of Christ to rapture His saints, and its focus on both apocalypticism and premillennialism.[62] Notable figures of the latter half of the 19th century include Charles Spurgeon in London and Dwight L. Moody in Chicago. Their powerful preaching reached very large audiences.[63][64] An advanced theological perspective came from the Princeton theologians from the 1850s to the 1920s, such as Charles Hodge, Archibald Alexander and B.B. Warfield.[65] 20th century[edit] Services at the Pentecostal Church of God in Lejunior, Kentucky, 1946 Evangelicalism in the early part of the 20th century was dominated by the Fundamentalist movement after 1910; it rejected liberal theology and emphasized the inerrancy of the Scriptures. Following the Welsh Revival, the Azusa Street Revival in 1906 began the spread of Pentecostalism in North America. In the post–World War II period, a split developed between Evangelicals, as they disagreed among themselves about how a Christian ought to respond to an unbelieving world. Many Evangelicals urged that Christians must engage the culture directly and constructively,[66][page needed] and they began to express reservations about being known to the world as fundamentalists. As Kenneth Kantzer put it at the time, the name fundamentalist had become "an embarrassment instead of a badge of honor".[67] The term neo-evangelicalism was coined by Harold Ockenga in 1947 to identify a distinct movement within self-identified fundamentalist Christianity at the time, especially in the English-speaking world. It described the mood of positivism and non-militancy that characterized that generation. The new generation of Evangelicals set as their goal to abandon a militant Bible stance. Instead, they would pursue dialogue, intellectualism, non-judgmentalism, and appeasement. They further called for an increased application of the gospel to the sociological, political, and economic areas. The self-identified fundamentalists also cooperated in separating their "neo-Evangelical" opponents from the fundamentalist name, by increasingly seeking to distinguish themselves from the more open group, whom they often characterized derogatorily by Ockenga's term, "neo-Evangelical" or just Evangelical. The evangelical revivalist Billy Graham in Duisburg, Germany, 1954 The fundamentalists saw the Evangelicals as often being too concerned about social acceptance and intellectual respectability, and being too accommodating to a perverse generation that needed correction. In addition, they saw the efforts of evangelist Billy Graham, who worked with non-Evangelical denominations, such as the Roman Catholics (which they claimed to be heretical), as a mistake.[citation needed] The post-war period also saw growth of the ecumenical movement and the founding of the World Council of Churches, which was generally regarded with suspicion by the Evangelical community.[citation needed] In the United Kingdom, John Stott and Martyn Lloyd-Jones emerged as key leaders in Evangelical Christianity. The charismatic movement began in the 1960s and resulted in Pentecostal theology and practice being introduced into many mainline denominations. New charismatic groups such as the Association of Vineyard Churches and Newfrontiers trace their roots to this period (see also British New Church Movement). The closing years of the 20th century saw controversial postmodern influences entering some parts of Evangelicalism, particularly with the emerging church movement.[clarification needed] Global statistics[edit] Chinese evangelical church in Madrid, Spain According to a 2011 Pew Forum study on global Christianity, 285,480,000 or 13.1 percent of all Christians are Evangelicals.[4] The largest concentration of Evangelicals can be found in the United States, with 26.8% of the U.S. population or 94.38 million,[68] the latter being roughly one third of the world's Evangelicals.[5] The next most populous is Brazil, with 26.3% or 51.33 million.[68] The World Evangelical Alliance is "a network of churches in 129 nations that have each formed an evangelical alliance and over 100 international organizations joining together to give a world-wide identity, voice, and platform to more than 600 million evangelical Christians".[69] The Alliance was formed in 1951 by Evangelicals from 21 countries. It has worked to support its members to work together globally. The World Christian Database estimates the number of Evangelicals at 300 million, Pentecostals and Charismatics at 600 million and "Great Commission" Christians at 700 million. These groups are not mutually exclusive. Operation World estimates the number of Evangelicals at 550 million.[70] From 1960 to 2000, the global growth of the number of reported Evangelicals grew three times the world's population rate, and twice that of Islam.[71] Africa[edit] In the 21st century, there are Evangelical churches active in Sudan, Angola, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Malawi, Rwanda, Uganda, Ghana, Kenya, Zambia, South Africa, and Nigeria. They have grown especially since independence came in the 1960s,[72] the strongest movements are based on Pentecostal-charismatic[clarification needed] beliefs, and comprise a way of life that has led to upward social mobility[dubious – discuss] and demands for democracy.[citation needed] There is a wide range of theology and organizations, including some sponsored by European missionaries and others that have emerged from African culture[dubious – discuss] such as the Apostolic and Zionist Churches which enlist 40% of black South Africans, and their Aladura counterparts in western Africa.[73][page needed] In Nigeria the Evangelical Church Winning All (formerly "Evangelical Church of West Africa") is the largest church organization with five thousand congregations and over three million members. It sponsors two seminaries and eight Bible colleges, and 1600 missionaries who serve in Nigeria and other countries with the Evangelical Missionary Society (EMS). There have been serious confrontations since 1999 between Muslims and Evangelical Christians standing in opposition to the expansion of Sharia law in northern Nigeria. The confrontation has radicalized and politicized the Christians. Violence has been escalating.[74] In Kenya, mainstream Evangelical denominations have taken the lead[dubious – discuss] in promoting political activism and backers, with the smaller Evangelical sects of less importance. Daniel arap Moi was president 1978 to 2002 and claimed to be an Evangelical; he proved intolerant of dissent or pluralism or decentralization of power.[75] The Berlin Missionary Society (BMS) was one of four German Protestant mission societies active in South Africa before 1914. It emerged from the German tradition of Pietism after 1815 and sent its first missionaries to South Africa in 1834. There were few positive reports in the early years, but it was especially active 1859–1914. It was especially strong in the Boer republics. The World War cut off contact with Germany, but the missions continued at a reduced pace. After 1945 the missionaries had to deal with decolonisation across Africa and especially with the apartheid government. At all times the BMS emphasized spiritual inwardness, and values such as morality, hard work and self-discipline. It proved unable to speak and act decisively against injustice and racial discrimination and was disbanded in 1972.[76] Since 1974, young professionals have been the active proselytizers of Evangelicalism in the cities of Malawi.[77] In Mozambique, Evangelical Protestant Christianity emerged around 1900 from black migrants whose converted previously in South Africa. They were assisted by European missionaries, but, as industrial workers, they paid for their own churches and proselytizing. They prepared southern Mozambique for the spread of Evangelical Protestantism. During its time as a colonial power in Mozambique, the Catholic Portuguese government tried to counter the spread of Evangelical Protestantism.[78] Latin America[edit] In modern Latin America, the word "Evangelical" is often simply a synonym for "Protestant".[79][80][81] Brazil[edit] Temple of Solomon replica built by the Universal Church of the Kingdom of God in São Paulo Main article: Protestantism in Brazil Protestantism in Brazil largely originated with German immigrants and British and American missionaries in the 19th century, following up on efforts that began in the 1820s.[82] In the late nineteenth century, while the vast majority of Brazilians were nominal Catholics, the nation was underserved by priests, and for large numbers their religion was only nominal. The Catholic Church in Brazil was de-established in 1890, and responded by increasing the number of dioceses and the efficiency of its clergy. Many Protestants came from a large German immigrant community, but they were seldom engaged in proselytism and grew mostly by natural increase. Methodists were active along with Presbyterians and Baptists. The Scottish missionary Dr. Robert Reid Kalley, with support from the Free Church of Scotland, moved to Brazil in 1855, founding the first Evangelical church among the Portuguese-speaking population there in 1856. It was organized according to the Congregational policy as the Igreja Evangélica Fluminense; it became the mother church of Congregationalism in Brazil.[83] The Seventh-day Adventists arrived in 1894, and the YMCA was organized in 1896. The missionaries promoted schools colleges and seminaries, including a liberal arts college in São Paulo, later known as Mackenzie, and an agricultural school in Lavras. The Presbyterian schools in particular later became the nucleus of the governmental system. In 1887 Protestants in Rio de Janeiro formed a hospital. The missionaries largely reached a working-class audience, as the Brazilian upper-class was wedded either to Catholicism or to secularism. By 1914, Protestant churches founded by American missionaries had 47,000 communicants, served by 282 missionaries. In general, these missionaries were more successful than they had been in Mexico, Argentina or elsewhere in Latin America.[84] There were 700,000 Protestants by 1930, and increasingly they were in charge of their own affairs. In 1930, the Methodist Church of Brazil became independent of the missionary societies and elected its own bishop. Protestants were largely from a working-class, but their religious networks help speed their upward social mobility.[85][86] Protestants accounted for fewer than 5% of the population until the 1960s, but grew exponentially by proselytizing and by 2000 made up over 15% of Brazilians affiliated with a church. Pentecostals and charismatic groups account for the vast majority of this expansion. Pentecostal missionaries arrived early in the 20th century. Pentecostal conversions surged during the 1950s and 1960s, when native Brazilians began founding autonomous churches. The most influential included Brasil Para o Cristo (Brazil for Christ), founded in 1955 by Manoel de Mello. With an emphasis on personal salvation, on God's healing power, and on strict moral codes these groups have developed broad appeal, particularly among the booming urban migrant communities. In Brazil, since the mid-1990's, groups committed to uniting black identity, antiracism, and Evangelical theology have rapidly proliferated.[87] Pentecostalism arrived in Brazil with Swedish and American missionaries in 1911. it grew rapidly, but endured numerous schisms and splits. In some areas the Evangelical Assemblies of God churches have taken a leadership role in politics since the 1960s. They claimed major credit for the election of Fernando Collor de Mello as president of Brazil in 1990.[88] According to the 2000 Census, 15.4% of the Brazilian population was Protestant. A recent research conducted by the Datafolha institute shows that 25% of Brazilians are Protestants, of which 19% are followers of Pentecostal denominations. The 2010 Census found out that 22.2% were Protestant at that date. Protestant denominations saw a rapid growth in their number of followers since the last decades of the 20th century.[89] They are politically and socially conservative, and emphasize that God's favor translates into business success.[90] The rich and the poor remained traditional Catholics, while most Evangelical Protestants were in the new lower-middle class–known as the "C class" (in a A–E classification system).[91] Chesnut argues that Pentecostalism has become "one of the principal organizations of the poor," for these churches provide the sort of social network that teach members the skills they need to thrive in a rapidly developing meritocratic society.[92] One large Evangelical church is the Universal Church of the Kingdom of God (IURD), a neo-Pentecostal denomination begun in 1977. It now has a presence in many countries, and claims millions of members worldwide.[93] Guatemala[edit] Protestants remained a small portion of the population until the late-twentieth century, when various Protestant groups experienced a demographic boom that coincided with the increasing violence of the Guatemalan Civil War. Two Guatemalan heads of state, General Efraín Ríos Montt and Jorge Serrano Elia, have been practicing Evangelical Protestants. They are the only two Protestant heads of state in the history of Latin America.[94][95] General Montt, an Evangelical from the Pentecostal tradition, came to power through a coup. He escalated the war against leftist guerilla insurgents as a holy war against atheistic forces of evil.[96] Asia[edit] Korea[edit] Main article: Christianity in Korea Protestant missionary activity in Asia was most successful in Korea. American Presbyterians and Methodists arrived in the 1880s and were well received. Between 1907 and 1945, when Korea was a Japanese colony, Christianity became in part an expression of nationalism in opposition to Japan's efforts to promote the Japanese language and the Shinto religion.[97] In 1914, out of 16 million people, there were 86,000 Protestants and 79,000 Catholics; by 1934, the numbers were 168,000 and 147,000. Presbyterian missionaries were especially successful.[98] Since the Korean War (1950–53), many Korean Christians have migrated to the U.S., while those who remained behind have risen sharply in social and economic status. Most Korean Protestant churches in the 21st century emphasize their Evangelical heritage. Korean Protestantism is characterized by theological conservatism[clarification needed] coupled with an emotional revivalistic[clarification needed] style. Most churches sponsor revival meetings once or twice a year. Missionary work is a high priority, with 13,000 men and Black Piner SOS ????????SOS Black Mayonnaise ????????? BOOMER Borero ??? Brothers ????? Buffalo Goro ???????? Akihiro Kimura ???? Motohiro Takewaka ???? B Special B ????? Hiromi ??? Mister Chin ?????? David Ito ?????? C edit Canaria ???? Charanporan ??????? Kojin Onishi ???? Makoto Tomiyoshi ??? Charlie Hama ?????? Chimonchochu ?????????? Chidori ?? Chihara Kyodai ???? Seiji Chihara ???? Junior Chihara ?????? Chohan Korokoro ?????? City Boys ??????? Makoto Otake ????? Kitaro ???? Shigeru Saiki ????? Choplin ?????? Cho Shinjuku ??? Koriki Choshu ???? Cross Punch ?????? Conte Aka Shingo ?????? Takayasu Komiya ???? Lasa R Ishii ?????? Masayuki Watanabe ???? Conte Gojugo Go ??? ? Jiro Sakagami ???? Kin ichi Hagimoto ???? Conte Leonard ???•????? Conte Yamaguchi kun and Takeda kun ?????????? Comedy No ????No Toshio Sakata ???? Goro Maeda ???? Kazutoyo Koyabu ???? Core ?? COWCOW Crazy Cats ????????? Cream Stew ???????? Teppei Arita ???? Shinya Ueda ???? Croquette ???? Hiroshi Takigawa ?? ?? Cunning ????? Takanori Takeyama ???? Tadayuki Nakashima ???? Cocorico ???? Shozo Endo ???? Naoki Tanaka ???? D edit Dacho Club ??????? Ryuhei Ueshima ???? Jimon Terakado ????? Katsuhiro Higo ???? Daian ???? Dainoji ???? Hikaru Daita ?????? Dangerous ?????? Darling Honey ??????? Tetsuro Degawa ???? Dokidoki Camp ???????? DonDokoDon Keiji Hirahata ???? Tomomitsu Yamaguchi ???? Downtown ?????? Hitoshi Matsumoto ???? Masatoshi Hamada ???? Do yo ??? The Drifters ?•?????? Dronz Ishimoto ?????? Drunk Dragon ???????? Duncan ???? E edit Edomurasaki ?????? Egashira ?? Egumi ?? Elec Comic ??????? Ichiro Yatsui ??????? Susumu Imadachi ??? Elephant Jon ????????? Energy ????? Ken ichi Enomoto ???? Entatsu Achako ????•???? Entatsu Yokoyama ?????? Achako Hanabishi ?????? F edit Football Hour ????????? Terumoto Goto ???? Nozomu Iwao ??? Fruit Punch ??????? Akira Fuji i ?????? Takashi Fujii ??? FUJIWARA Takayuki Haranishi ???? Toshifumi Fujimoto ???? Ryo Fukawa ?????? Roppa Furukawa G edit Garage Sale ??????? Hiroki Kawada ???? Gorie ?? Garittochu ??????? Yoshinari Fukushima ???? Takehiro Kumagai ???? THE GEESE Gekidan Hitori ????? Go ban Roku ban ? ? Gokuraku Tombo ????? Koji Kato ???? Kei ichi Yamamoto ???? Gokyu ?? Goriken ???? Grunge ???? Taka Guadalcanal ??????•?? Guitar Zamurai ???? a k a Yoku Hata ???? Ginshari ???? H edit Kin ichi Hagimoto ???? Hallelujah ???? Hamakan ????? Hanawa ??? Hana Engine ????? Hajime Hana ??? Hannya ???? Akiyoshi Kawashima ???? Satoshi Kanada ??? Akimasa Haraguchi ?????? Haraichi ???? Yuki Iwai ???? Yu Sawabe ??? Harigane Rock ??????? Harisembon ?????? Haru Ichi ban ??? Haruka Christine ????????? Hawking Aoyama ??????? Kikuzo Hayashiya ????? Kikuhime Hayashiya ????? Pako Hayashiya ????? Pe Hayashiya ???? Sanpei Hayashiya ???? Shozo Hayashiya th ??? ???? Kampei Hazama ??? Hebi Ichigo ????? Heisei Nobushikobushi ???????? Haro ?? Hello Bye bye ??????? Hello Keisuke ??????? Koji Higashino ???? Hibiki ? Hideyoshi ???? High Heel ????? Hikaru Wakabayashi Hiroshi ??? Masami Hisamoto ?? ?? Hokuyo ?? Mihoko Abukawa ????? Saori Ito ????? Home Team ???•??? Honjamaka ?????? Hidehiko Ishizuka ???? Toshiaki Megumi ??? Hori ?? Hoshi Saint Louis ????•??? Takuya Hoshino ???? Hosshan ?????? Hurricanez ???~?? I edit Rakkyo Ide ?????? Hikaru Ijuin ???? Chosuke Ikariya ?????? Koji Imada ???? Ima Ikuyo Kuruyo ????•??? Impulse ????? Toshiyuki Itakura ???? Atsushi Tsutsumishita ??? Ma Inoue ???? Tatsuo Inoue ???? Instant Johnson ??????????? Inu ga Nya to Naita Hi ??????????? Ishibashi Hazama ??????? Yasushi Ishida ??? Rusher Itamae ??????? Asako Ito ?????? Esper Ito ?????? Itsumo Kokokara ??????? Kazunari Yamada ???? Hidenori Kikuchi ???? Shu Izumi ??? Izumo no Okuni ???? J edit Jalism ????? Atsumu Watanabe ??? Shigenori Yamashita ?????? Jelly Beans Collection ????????•?????? Jicho Kacho ???? Jun ichi Komoto ???? Satoshi Inoue ??? Tomonori Jinnai ???? Jipangu Joriku Sakusen ???????? Jishaku ?? Jodans ?????? Junction ??????? K edit Kankara ???? Kannazuki ??? Karateka ???? Karika ??? Kasaihochiki ????? kasumi kaho ????? Tsurutaro Kataoka ????? Cha Kato ??? Kunikazu Katsumata ???? Katsumi Sayuri ??????? Koeda Katsura ??? Sanshi Katsura ??? Utamaru Katsura ??? Zakoba Katsura ???? Yasushi Kawabata ???? Kunihiro Kawashima ???? Daido Kido Color ??????? Kigurumi Piero ??????? Kikaisenshi Shisso Boat ???? ???~? Koishi Kimi ????? Killing Sense ??????? Yuichi Kimura ?? ?? King of Comedy ????????? King Kong ?????? Yuta Kajiwara ???? Akihiro Nishino ???? Kirin ?? Knights ??? Nobuyuki Hanawa ??? Nobuyuki Tsuchiya ???? Kendo Kobayashi ???????? Yoshio Kojima ????? Kokoriko ???? Shozo Endo ???? Naoki Tanaka ???? Keita Komera ????? Koga Gaku iGP Manager Driver World Champion Kojima Yoshio ????? Kometsubu Shakyo ???? Koumedayu ???? Kukurin ???? Masashi Kumada ?????? Kazuo Kuwabara ???? Kuwabata Ohara ??????? Rie Kuwabata ????? Seiko Ohara ???? Nobuyoshi Kuwano ???? Kyain ???~? Hiroyuki Amano ?????? Udo Suzuki ???? KYAN×KYAN ???×??? L edit Let s Go Sam biki ??????? Ralph A Vaughn John B Veihmeyer Victoria Vesna Edward F Vincent Michael Viner Milan Vuitch WMurray Waas Jude Waddy Alex Wagner Dan Walker politician William Douglas Wallach Ron Walters politician William Walton painter Aida Ward Ernie Warlick Lewis Warrington Medal of Honor Eugenia Washington George Corbin Washington Erasmus M Weaver Jr Walter Reed Weaver Charles F Wedderburn Richard Hanson Weightman Sumner Welles Spencer Wells Arthur L Welsh Alexa L Wesner Anne Wexler Arthur K Wheelock Jr Rosa Whitaker John C Whitcomb John White Louisiana politician Courtney Whitney Arthur Widmer Robert Wiedmaier Isabel Wilkerson Terrence Wilkins Alexander Williams Jr Edwin Williams Stephanie Williams Miss District of Columbia Dede Wilsey Ernest J Wilson III Yauco Spanish pronunciation '?auko is a city ciudad and municipality in southwestern Puerto Rico centered on the city of the same name Although the city is inland the municipality stretches to a southern coast facing the Caribbean Yauco is south of Maricao Lares and Adjuntas east of Sabana Grande and Guánica and west of Guayanilla The municipality has wards and the main city Yauco zona urbana Yauco Urban Zone It is both a principal city of the Yauco Metropolitan Statistical Area and the Ponce Yauco Coamo Combined Statistical Area According to the United States Census Bureau the population of Yauco in the year was persons decreasing to persons in a net loss of people or of its population Its land area is square kilometers with a population density of The urban zone accounted for of its inhabitants in the census Founded by Fernando Pacheco on February Yauco was a center for Corsican immigration to Puerto Rico in the th century due to its geographical similarity to their homeland Corsicans have contributed to many areas of life in Yauco particularly its coffee producing agriculture This has contributed to its nicknames of El Pueblo del Café City of Coffee and Los Corsos The Corsicans It is also known as La Capital Taína Taíno Capital after the native peoples of Puerto Rico Contents History th century Corsican immigration Intentona de Yauco Spanish–American War Geography Cityscape Barrios Tourism Landmarks and places of interest Economy Culture Festivals and events Government Atsushi Tamura ??? Ryo Tamura ??? Love Couple ?????? M edit Macha macha a k a Maja ?????? ?? Ken Maeda ??? Shinji Maggy ????? Paul Maki ???? Shinji Maki ??? Masuda Okada ?????? Keisuke Okada ???? Hidehiko Masuda ???? Kick Matsumoto ????? Kunihiro Matsumura ???? Bannai Matsuo ???? Messenger ??????? Tamotsu Kuroda ?? ? Masakazu Aihara ?? ?? Michael ???? Yasue Michi ????? Kenichi Mikawa ???? Yaji Minamino ???? Mizutama Reppu Tai ??????? Daisuke and Hanako Miyagawa ????•?? Monkikki ?????? Mori San chu ??? Kazuko Kurosawa ???? Tomoko Murakami ???? Miyuki Oshima ???? Moriman ???? Hisaya Morishige ???? Moro Moro oka ???? Mr Bald Mr ???? Mr Okure Mr ??? Shoji Murakami ?????? MYMY ???? Miyuki Tori ????? N edit Yakan Nabe ????? Takeshi Nadagi ???? Hidekazu Nagai ???? Pretty Nagashima ?????? Nagare Boshi ??? Nakagawake ??? Mari Nakajima ???? Koji Nakamoto ???? Nakata Kausu Button ?????•??? Kin ni kun Nakayama ???????? Kota Nakayama ???? Naname ° ??? ° Nankai Candies ????????? Ryota Yamasato ???? Shizuyo Yamasaki ???? Nasu Nakanishi ?????? Nasubi ??? Nego Six ?????? Neko Hiroshi ???? Neptune ?????? Jun Nagura ??? Taizo Harada ???? Ken Horiuchi ??? The Newspaper ?•???????? Nibun nogo ????? Ni cho Kenju ??? Nickelback ??????? Ninety Nine ???????? Takashi Okamura ???? Hiroyuki Yabe ???? Kiyoshi Nishikawa ????? Norio Nishikawa ????? NON STYLE ?????? Naoko Nozawa ???? O edit Takashi Obitani ???? Ogi Yahagi ????? Hiroaki Ogi ???? Ken Yahagi ??? Local Oka ????? Ijiri Okada ?????? Okami Shonen ?????? Oki Kodama Hibiki ?????•??? Ichiro Okuma ?????? Jimmy Onishi ????? Or Cs ???? Kayoko Okubo ?????? Yasuko Mitsu ura ???? Oriental Radio ????????? Atsuhiko Nakata ???? Shingo Fujimori ???? Othello ??? Tomoko Nakajima ???? Nahomi Matsushima ???? Oxygen ?????? Hideo Oyama ???? P edit Pa kkun Ma kkun ???????? Pakkun ???? Makkun ???? Patapata Mama ?????? Patch Work ?????? Punk Bu Bu ??????? Parachute Butai ???????? Peace ??? Zenji Peking ?????? Penalty ????? Wacky ???? Hide ?? Pink no Denwa ?????? Pirates ????? The Plan ?•??? Plus Minus ??????? POISON GIRL BAND Pu & Mu ??&?? Puppet Muppet ???????? R edit Rahmens ????? Jin Katagiri ??? Kentaro Kobayashi ????? Randys ?????? Razor Ramon ??????? Hard Gay a k a HG Masaki Sumitani ???????HG ???? Real Gay a k a RG Makoto Izubuchi ???????RG ??? Real Kidz ?????? Regular ????? Kota Matsumoto ???? Akihiro Nishikawa ???? REM Iro ??? Ritton Chosa dan ??????? Robert ???? Ryuji Akiyama ???? Hiroshi Yamamoto ??? Hiroyuki Baba ???? Rocket dan ????? Rookie Shin ichi ?????? Rokkotsu Mania R??? Route ??? Rozan ??? S edit Saburoku Monkeys °????? Sakai Kunio Toru ?????•??? Frankie Sakai ?????? Masaaki Sakai ??? Jiro Sakagami ???? Dandy Sakano ?????? Toshio Sakata ???? Sakamoto chan ????? Kazuyuki Sakuma ????? Sakurambo Booby ????????? Sambyoshi ??? Sampei ?? San yutei Enraku ????? San yutei Rakutaro ?????? Sandwich Man ????????? Savanna ???? Sayumi Hikari ???•??? Tsutomu Sekine ??? Sentaku Basami ??????? Shaka ??? Shampoo Hat ???????? Koidemizu ??? Tetsuji ??? Shanghai Doll ????? Rie Shibata ???? Ichinosuke Shimada ????? Shinsuke Shimada ???? Tamayo Shimada ???? Yohichi Shimada ???? Joji Shimaki ???? Akira Shimizu ?? ??? Ken Shimura ???? Shinagawa Shoji ???? Hiroshi Shinagawa ??? Tomoharu Shoji ???? Shio Kosho ????? Shizuru ??? Sho Hunting ??????? Nikaku Shofukutei ????? Shohei Shofukutei ????? Tsurube Shofukutei ????? Atom Shukugawa ????? Showa Noiru Koiru ?????•??? Slim Club ?????? Ken Maeda ??? ? Masanari Uchima ?? ?? Smiley Kikuchi ???????? Sonomanma Higashi ?????? Speed Wagon ??????? Jun Itoda ???? Kazuhiro Ozawa ???? Streak ????? Tomu Suetaka ???? Summers ???~? Kazuki Otake ???? Masakazu Mimura ?????? Shinji Suwa ???? T edit Saburo Taihei ?????? Shiro Taihei ????? Taizo ???? Taka and Toshi ??????? Junji Takada ???? Bu Takagi ???? Casey Takamine ?????? Takeshi Gundan ????? Take Tamori ??? Kei Tani ?? Tanoshingo ???? Kenji Tamura ?????? Tanaka Kosaka ???? Yoshie Tanoue ????? Masashi Tashiro ????? Tashiro ?? Danshi Tatekawa ???? Tekken ?? Tenshin ?? Tent ??? Tetsu and Tomo ??and?? TIM Red Yoshida ????? Golgo Matsumoto ????? Time Machine San go ??????? ? TKO Takehiro Kimoto ???? Takayuki Kinoshita ???? Tobi ishi Renkyu ???? George Tokoro ????? Tokyo Dynamite ???????? Tokyo ?? Cozy Tomita ?????? Tommys ???? Tonny Tani ???? Tomochika ?? Tomoike Nakabayashi ???? Tomonori Jinnai ???? Total Tenbosch ???????? The Touch ?•??? Minoru Torihada ??? Toro Salmon ?????? Oniyakko Tsubaki ??? Shiro Tsubuyaki ??????? Shigeo Tsujimoto ???? Edamame Tsumami ????? Tunnels ????? Takaaki Ishibashi ???? Norisuke Kinashi ???? Tutorial ??????? Tenjikunezumi ??? U edit Katsunori Uchiba ???? Hitoshi Ueki ??? Koichi Ukawa ???? Unabara Yasuyo Tomoko ?????•??? Yasuyo Unabara ????? Tomoko Unabara ????? Unbalance ?????? Ungirls ?????? Takushi Tanaka ???? Yoshiaki Yamane ???? UN JASH ??????? Ken Watabe ??? Kazuya Kojima ???? U ji Koji U??? Untouchable ???????? Hidetsugu Shibata ???? Hironari Yamazaki ???? Up down ?????? Takumi Takemori ??? Hiroki Abe ?? ?? U tchan Nan chan ?????????? Teruyoshi Uchimura ???? Kiyotaka Nanbara ???? Utopia ????? V edit Vickys ????? Viking ????? W edit Wagaya ??? Osamu Wakai ????? Warai Meshi ??? Y edit Hanako Yamada ???? Hosei Yamasaki ???? Passion Yara ??????? Yarusenasu ????? Yasei Bakudan ???? Yasu Kiyo ???? Yasushi Yokoyama ????? Kiyoshi Nishikawa ????? Shin nosuke Yasuo ????? Yasuda Dai Circus ??????? Yoiko ??? Masaru Hamaguchi ??? Shin ya Arino ???? Yokoyama Hot Brothers ?????????? Knock Yokoyama ????? Hiro Yoshida ???? Itoshi Yumeji ????? Yurioka Cho Tokkyu ??????Q Yutaro ????? Z edit Zenjiro ????? Idols male edit MR Chip Daiki Arioka Goro Inagaki Hikaru Yaotome Hiroki Uchi Jin Akanishi Jun Matsumoto Junnosuke Taguchi Junichi Okada Kanata Hongo Katori Shingo Kazunari Ninomiya Kazuya Kamenashi Kei Inoo Keiichiro Koyama Keita Tachibana Keito Okamoto Kimura Takuya Koichi Domoto Koike Teppei Kota Yabu Kusano Hironori Masahiro Nakai Masaki Aiba Ryutaro Morimoto Shingo Murakami Ryo Nishikido Ryohei Chiba Ryuichi Ogata Ryosuke Yamada Satoshi Ohno Shigeaki Kato Shingo Murakami Shintaro Morimoto Sho Sakurai Shota Yasuda Subaru Shibutani Takahisa Masuda Tanaka Koki Tatsuya Ueda Tsuyoshi Domoto Tsuyoshi Kusanagi Tomohisa Yamashita Toma Ikuta Yu Yokoyama Yuichi Nakamaru Yuma Nakayama Yuto Nakajima Yuuri Chinen Yuya Tegoshi Yuya Takaki Idols female edit Kanako Momota Shiori Tamai Ayaka Sasaki Momoka Ariyasu Reni Takagi Akiyama Rina Airi & Meiri Aya Ueto Koike Eiko Nakagawa Shoko Natsukawa Jun Uehara Takako Yamamoto Azusa Maeda Atsuko Oshima Yuko Itano Tomomi Chise Nakamura Haruna Iikubo Haruka Kudo Ayumi Ishida Masaki Sato Mizuki Fukumura Erina Ikuta Riho Sayashi Kanon Suzuki Umika Kawashima Sayumi Michishige Kusumi Koharu Erina Mano Aya Matsuura Yuki Kashiwagi Mayu Watanabe Jurina Matsui Rena Matsui Minami Takahashi Minami Minegishi Haruna Kojima Aki Takajo Mariko Shinoda Akimoto Sayaka Tomomi Kasai Rie Kitahara Rino Sashihara Models edit Aki Hoshino Riyo Mori Ebihara Yuri Fujiwara Norika Horiuchi Yoko Inoue Waka Mariya Nishiuchi May J Meisa Kuroki Oshikiri Moe Umemiya Anna Yamada Yu Josh Snow Kanata Hongo Tao Okamoto Suzuka Morita Oishi Megumi Musicians Singers male edit Eiichi Ohtaki Eikichi Yazawa Gackt Haruomi Hosono hide Hiromi Go Kiyoshiro Imawano Hideaki Tokunaga Hyde Kazumasa Oda Keisuke Kuwata Koshi Inaba Koji Tamaki Kyosuke Himuro Miyavi Noriyuki Makihara Ryuichi Sakamoto Saijo Hideki Takanori Nishikawa Tamio Okuda Tatsuya Ishii Tatsuro Yamashita Tomoyasu Hotei Toshi Kubota Toshiki Kadomatsu Yasuyuki Okamura Yoshiki Yosui Inoue Yukihiro Takahashi Musicians Singers female edit Ai Otsuka Ai Takahashi Aiko Kayo Akiko Wada Alisa Durbrow Angela Aki Anna Tsuchiya Airi Suzuki ARIA Asami Fujimura Aya Hirano Aya Matsuura Aya Ueto Ayaka Hirahara Ayaka Komatsu Ayaka Ayumi Hamasaki Ayumi Kinoshita Beni Arashiro Bonnie Pink Chiaki Kuriyama Chihiro Onitsuka Chisaki Hama Chitose Hajime Crystal Kay Erika Sawajiri Emi Hinouchi Emi Maria Emyli Garnet Crow Goto Maki Hagiwara Mai Halna Hikaru Nishida Hiro Hiroko Anzai Hiroko Shimabukuro hitomi Ikue Sakakibara Imai Eriko JASMINE JAMOSA Jhené Aiko Jun Natsukawa Junko Sakurada JYONGRI Kiyoe Yoshioka Kanako Enomoto Kanbe Miyuki Kanon Wakeshima Kawabe Chieco Kawase Tomoko Keiko Kitagawa Kia Sakara Kumi Koda Kusumi Koharu Lia Lisa Yamaguchi Maaya Sakamoto Maeda Atsuko May J Mari Amachi Masako Mori Meisa Kuroki Megumi Odaka Megumi Megumi Hayashibara Melody Mew Azama MiCHi Mihiro Taniguchi Miho Komatsu Miho Nakayama Miho Yoshioka Miki Fujimoto Miliyah Kato MINMI Miyu Sawai Mizuki Nana Momoe Yamaguchi Myco Mika Nakashima Namie Amuro Natsuyaki Miyabi Noriko Sakai Reina Tanaka Reon Kadena Ribbon Ryoko Hirosue Saori Minami Sayaka Sayumi Michishige Seiko Matsuda Shoko Nakagawa Takako Ohta Takako Uehara Thelma Aoyama Tomomi Itano Tsugunaga Momoko Utada Hikaru Waka Inoue Yui Yui Makino Yukiko Okada Yuko Ogura Yuna Ito Tarento edit Aya Ueto Becky Kazushige Nagashima Kano sisters Obi Tenaka Mina Fukui Momoiro Clover Z Actors edit Main article List of Japanese actors Eita Kamakari Kenta Fujiwara Tatsuya Ishihara Yujiro Ikuta Toma Matsudaira Ken Shun Oguri Ryuhei Matsuda Takeru Satoh Seto Koji Satoshi Tsumabuki Shota Matsuda Ken Watanabe A edit Hiroshi Abe Tsuyoshi Abe Asahi Uchida Aiba Hiroki Kazuyuki Aijima Show Aikawa Akanishi Jin Kousei Amano Anan Kenji Masanobu Ando Aoyama Sota Arai Hirofumi Hirofumi Araki Arata Asano Tadanobu Kai Ato Atsumi Kiyoshi B edit Ban Daisuke Bando Eiji C edit Sonny Chiba Shinichi Chiba Chishu Ryu D edit Tsuyoshi Domoto Koichi Domoto E edit Eita Eguchi Yosuke Endo Kenichi Enomoto Kenichi F edit Tatsuya Fuji Fujimoto Takahiro Fujioka Hiroshi Fujita Makoto Fujiwara Tatsuya Fukikoshi Mitsuru Seizo Fukumoto Fukuyama Masaharu Akira Fuse G edit H edit Takashi Hagino Hagiwara Masato Kento Handa Harada Yoshio Hideji Otaki Higashi Sonomanma Hirata Hiroaki Hiro Mizushima Hiroshi Tamaki Hiroya Matsumoto Takahiro Hojo Hongo Kanata Horie Kei Horiuchi Masami Shigeki Hosokawa I edit Ichikawa Raizo Ichikawa Utaemon Ikariya Chosuke Ikebe Ryo Ikuta Toma Inoue Mao Isaka Tatsuya Iseya Yusuke Renji Ishibashi Ishibashi Ryo Ishida Takuya Ishihara Yujiro Ishikura Saburo Atsushi Ito Shigeru Izumiya J edit K edit Takeshi Kaga Kagawa Teruyuki Kamenashi Kazuya Masaki Kaji Bando Kakitsu I Kenta Kamakari Yusuke Kamiji Ryunosuke Kamiki Ryuji Kamiyama Kaname Jun Miyuki Kanbe Kane Kosugi Kaneshiro Takeshi Mitsuru Karahashi Kenzie Taylor Tsurutaro Kataoka Kazuki Kato Katori Shingo Ryo Katsuji Kazama Morio Kazunari Ninomiya Kazuya Kamenashi Keaton Yamada Ken Watanabe Kenichi Matsuyama Kimura Takuya Kishi Yuji Shin Kishida Kitamura Eiki Takeshi Kitano Kobayashi Akira Kaoru Kobayashi Kobayashi Keiju Masahiro Kobayashi actor Masahiro Kobayashi director Kobayashi Nenji Koki Tanaka Koike Teppei Koyuki Yoshikazu Kotani Kubozuka Yousuke Kurata Yasuaki L edit M edit Maeda Atsuko Maruse Taro Masanobu Ando Masahiko Kondo Masuda Takahisa Matsuda Kenji Matsuda Ryuhei Matsuda Shota Ken Matsudaira Yusaku Matsuda Matsukata Hiroki Matsukawa Naruki Matsumoto Jun Kenichi Matsuyama Takashi Matsuyama Toshiro Mifune Akifumi Miura Miura Haruma Miura Tomokazu Miyaguchi Seiji Yuya Miyashita Miyavi Hiro Mizushima Ryoji Morimoto Morishige Hisaya Moriyama Mirai Motoki Masahiro Hiroaki Murakami Murata Kazumi N edit Anzu Nagai Nagase Masatoshi Akira Nagata Nagayama Takashi Nakadai Tatsuya Kiichi Nakai Nakai Masahiro Nakamaru Yuichi Katsuo Nakamura Yuichi Nakamura actor Yuichi Nakamura voice actor Narimiya Hiroki Nezu Jinpachi Nishida Toshiyuki Hidetoshi Nishijima Nishikido Ryo Nishimura Masahiko O edit Oda Yuji Joe Odagiri Ogata Ken Oguri Shun Suzuka Ohgo Oizumi You Masumi Okada Masi Oka Okochi Denjiro Okuchi Kengo Oshinari Shugo Osugi Ren P edit Q edit R edit Ryohei Odai Ryu Kohata S edit Saito Takumi Sakai Masato Sanada Hiroyuki Sandayu Dokumamushi Takashi Sasano Koichi Sato Sato Takeru Yuki Sato Kenta Satoi Kotaro Satomi Sawaki Tetsu Sawamura Ikki Seto Koji Jyoji Shibue Shimomoto Shiro Shimura Takashi Shin Koyamada Shinjiro Atae Shirota Yuu Shishido Jo Shoei Sorimachi Takashi Takamasa Suga Sugi Ryotaro Hiroki Suzuki Shogo Yamaguchi T edit Takizawa Hideaki Taguchi Tomorowo Taguchi Junnosuke Tak Sakaguchi Takahashi Hideki Takakura Ken Takaoka Sosuke Takashima Masahiro Takashima Masanobu Kaku Takashina Tetsuya Takeda Takenaka Naoto Takenouchi Yutaka Takeshi Kaneshiro Tamba Tetsuro Tamba Yoshitaka Tamayama Tetsuji Tamura Masakazu Ryo Tamura Tanabe Seiichi


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angela-baron angela-summers angel-barrett angel-cash angel-cruz angel-cummings angel-ducharme angelica-sin angelika-reschner angelina-brasini angelina-korrs angelina-valentine angel-kelly angel-long angel-west angie-knight anita-andic anita-blond anita-cannibal anita-dark anna-belle anna-malle anna-nikova anna-pierce anna-ventura anna-veruska anne-bie-warburg anne-libert anne-magle anne-sand annette-haven annie-sprinkle ann-kiray ann-marie-michelle antonia-dorian april-flowers april-may april-west arcadia-lake ariana-bali ariana-jollee arlana-blue ashley-anne ashley-brooks ashley-coda ashley-fires ashley-lauren ashley-long ashley-marie ashley-nicole ashley-perk ashley-renee ashley-robbins ashley-welles ashley-wells ashley-winger ashlyn-gere astrid-bone athena-star aubrey-nichols aurora aurora-snow autumn-bliss autumn-rayne ava-devine ava-lauren avalon ava-marteens avy-lee-roth bailey-monroe bambi-allen barbara-bourbon barbara-boutet barbara-dare barbara-doll barbara-moose barbarella 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women serving in missions across the world, putting Korea in second place just behind the US.[99] Sukman argues that since 1945, Protestantism has been widely seen by Koreans as the religion of the middle class, youth, intellectuals, urbanites, and modernists.[100][101] It has been a powerful force[dubious – discuss] supporting South Korea's pursuit of modernity and emulation[dubious – discuss] of the United States, and opposition to the old Japanese colonialism and to the authoritarianism of North Korea.[102] There are 8.6 million adherents to Protestant Christianity (approximately 19% of the Korean population) in which many[quantify] identify themselves as Evangelicals. South Korea has been referred as an "evangelical superpower" for being the home to some of the largest and most dynamic Christian churches in the world; South Korea is also second to the U.S. in the number of missionaries sent abroad.[103][104][105] United Kingdom[edit] There are an estimated 2 million Evangelicals in the UK.[106] According to research performed by the Evangelical Alliance in 2013, 87% of UK evangelicals attend Sunday morning church services every week and 63% attend weekly or fortnightly small groups.[107] An earlier survey conducted in 2012 found that 92% of evangelicals agree it is a Christian's duty to help those in poverty and 45% attend a church which has a fund or scheme that helps people in immediate need, and 42% go to a church that supports or runs a foodbank. 63% believe a tithing, and so give around 10% of their income to their church, Christian organisations and various charities[108] 83% of UK evangelicals believe that the Bible has supreme authority in guiding their beliefs, views and behaviour and 52% read or listen to the Bible daily.[109] The Evangelical Alliance, formed in 1846, was the first ecumenical evangelical body in the world and works to unite evangelicals, helping them listen to, and be heard by, the government, media and society. United States[edit] The contemporary North American usage of the term reflects the impact of the Fundamentalist–Modernist Controversy of the early 20th century. Evangelicalism may sometimes be perceived as the middle ground between the theological liberalism of the mainline denominations and the cultural separatism of fundamentalism.[110] Evangelicalism has therefore been described as "the third of the leading strands in American Protestantism, straddl[ing] the divide between fundamentalists and liberals".[111] In 2004 Andrew Crouch wrote in Christianity Today: "The emerging movement is a protest against much of evangelicalism as currently practiced. It is post-evangelical in the way that neo-evangelicalism (in the 1950s) was post-fundamentalist. It would not be unfair to call it postmodern evangelicalism."[112] While the North American perception has a certain importance in understanding some usage of the term, it by no means dominates a wider global view: elsewhere the fundamentalist debate had less direct influence. D.W. Cloud wrote: "In the first half of the 20th century, evangelicalism in America was largely synonymous with fundamentalism. George Marsden in Reforming Fundamentalism (1995) writes, "There was not a practical distinction between fundamentalist and evangelical: the words were interchangeable" (p. 48). When the National Association of Evangelicals (NAE) formed in 1942, for example, participants included such fundamentalist leaders as Bob Jones, Sr., John R. Rice, Charles Woodbridge, Harry Ironside, and David Otis Fuller."[113] By the mid-1950s, largely due to the ecumenical evangelism of Billy Graham, the terms Evangelicalism and fundamentalism began to refer to two different approaches. Fundamentalism aggressively attacked its liberal enemies; Evangelicalism downplayed liberalism and emphasized outreach and conversion of new members.[114] While some conservative Evangelicals[which?] believe the label has broadened too much beyond its more limiting traditional distinctives, this trend is nonetheless strong enough to create significant ambiguity in the term.[115] As a result, the dichotomy between "Evangelical" and "mainline" denominations is increasingly complex, particularly with such innovations as the "emergent church" movement. 20th century[edit] By the 1890s, most American Protestants belonged to Evangelical denominations, except for the high church Episcopalians and German Lutherans. In the early 20th century, a divide opened up between the Fundamentalists and the Mainline Protestant denominations, chiefly over the inerrancy of the Bible. The fundamentalists were those Evangelicals who sought to defend their religious traditions, and feared that modern scientific leanings were leading away from the truth. A favored mode of fighting back was to prohibit the teaching of Darwinism or macro-evolution as fact in the public schools, a movement that reached its peak in the Scopes Trial of 1925, and resumed in the 1980s. The more modernistic Protestants largely abandoned the term "evangelical" and tolerated evolutionary theories in modern science and even in Biblical studies. Evangelicals held the view that the modernist and liberal parties in the Protestant churches had surrendered their heritage as Evangelicals by accommodating the views and values of secularism. At the same time, the modernists criticized fundamentalists for their separatism and their rejection of the Social Gospel. During and after World War II, Evangelicals increasingly organized, and expanded their vision to include the entire world. There was a great expansion of Evangelical activity within the United States, "a revival of revivalism." Youth for Christ was formed; it later became the base for Billy Graham's revivals. The National Association of Evangelicals formed in 1942 as a counterpoise to the mainline Federal Council of Churches. In 1942–43, the Old-Fashioned Revival Hour had a record-setting national radio audience.[116][page needed] Even more dramatic was the expansion of international missionary activity by the Evangelicals. They had enthusiasm and self-confidence after the national victory in the world war. Many Evangelicals came from poor rural districts, but wartime and postwar prosperity dramatically increased the funding resources available for missionary work. While mainline Protestant denominations cut back on their missionary activities, from 7000 to 3000 overseas workers between 1935 and 1980, the Evangelicals increased their career foreign missionary force from 12,000 in 1935 to 35,000 in 1980. Meanwhile Europe was falling behind, as North Americans comprised 41% of all the world's Protestant missionaries in 1936, rising to 52% in 1952 and 72% in 1969. The most active denominations were the Assemblies of God, which nearly tripled from 230 missionaries in 1935 to 626 in 1952, and the United Pentecostal Church International, formed in 1945. The Southern Baptists more than doubled from 405 to 855, as did the Church of the Nazarene from 88 to 200.[117] Overseas missionaries began to prepare for the postwar challenge, most notably the Far Eastern Gospel Crusade (FEGC; now named "Send International"). After Nazi Germany and fascist Japan had been destroyed, the newly mobilized Evangelicals were now prepared to combat atheistic communism, secularism, Darwinism, liberalism, Catholicism, and (in overseas missions) paganism.[118] Meaning of Evangelicalism in the US[edit] The Institute for the Study of American Evangelicals states: There are three senses in which the term "evangelical" is used today at the beginning of the 21st-century. The first is to view "evangelical" as all Christians who affirm a few key doctrines and practical emphases. British historian David Bebbington approaches evangelicalism from this direction and notes four specific hallmarks of evangelical religion: conversionism, the belief that lives need to be changed; activism, the expression of the gospel in effort; biblicism, a particular regard for the Bible; and crucicentrism, a stress on the sacrifice of Christ on the cross. A second sense is to look at evangelicalism as an organic group of movements and religious tradition. Within this context "evangelical" denotes a style as much as a set of beliefs. As a result, groups such as black Baptists and Dutch Reformed Churches, Mennonites and Pentecostals, Catholic charismatics and Southern Baptists all come under the evangelical umbrella, thus demonstrating just how diverse the movement really is. A third sense of the term is as the self-ascribed label for a coalition that arose during the Second World War. This group came into being as a reaction against the perceived anti-intellectual, separatist, belligerent nature of the fundamentalist movement in the 1920s and 1930s. Importantly, its core personalities (like Harold John Ockenga and Billy Graham), institutions (for instance, Moody Bible Institute and Wheaton College), and organizations (such as the National Association of Evangelicals and Youth for Christ) have played a pivotal role in giving the wider movement a sense of cohesion that extends beyond these "card-carrying" evangelicals.[119] Demographics[edit] An event at Gateway Church's 114 Southlake Campus The 2004 survey of religion and politics in the United States identified the Evangelical percentage of the population at 26.3 percent while Roman Catholics are 22 percent and mainline Protestants make up 16 percent.[120] In the 2007 Statistical Abstract of the United States, the figures for these same groups are 28.6 percent (Evangelical), 24.5 percent (Roman Catholic), and 13.9 percent (mainline Protestant.) The latter figures are based on a 2001 study of the self-described religious identification of the adult population for 1990 and 2001 from the Graduate School and University Center at the City University of New York.[121] A 2008 study showed that in the year 2000 about 9 percent of Americans attended an Evangelical service on any given Sunday.[122][123] The Economist estimated in May 2012, that "over one-third of Americans, more than 100?M, can be considered evangelical," arguing that the percentage is often undercounted because many black Christians espouse Evangelical theology but prefer to refer to themselves as "born again Christians" rather than "evangelical."[124] These estimated figures given by The Economist agree with those in 2012 from Wheaton College's Institute for the Studies of American Evangelicals.[5] The movement is highly diverse and encompasses a vast number of people. Because the group is diverse, not all of them use the same terminology for beliefs. For instance, several recent studies and surveys by sociologists and political scientists that utilize more complex definitional parameters have estimated the number of Evangelicals in the U.S. in 2012 at about 30–35% of the population, or roughly between 90 and 100 million people.[5] The National Association of Evangelicals is a U.S. agency which coordinates cooperative ministry for its member denominations. Types of Evangelical[edit] John C. Green, a senior fellow at the Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life, used polling data to separate Evangelicals into three camps, which he labels as traditionalist, centrist and modernist:[110] Traditionalists, characterized by high affinity for certain Protestant beliefs, (especially penal substitutionary atonement, justification by faith, the authority of scripture, the priesthood of all believers, etc.) which, when fused with the highly political milieu of Western culture (especially American culture), has resulted in the political disposition that has been labeled the Christian right, with figures like Jerry Falwell and the television evangelist Pat Robertson as its most visible spokesmen. Centrist evangelicals, described as socially conservative, mostly avoiding politics, who still support much of traditional Christian theology. Modernist evangelicals, a small minority in the movement, have low levels of church-attendance and "have much more diversity in their beliefs".[110] Politics[edit] Christian right[edit] Main article: Christian right Evangelical political influence in America was first evident in the 1830s with movements such as abolition of slavery and the prohibition movement, which closed saloons and taverns in state after state until it succeeded nationally in 1919.[125] The Christian right is a coalition of numerous groups of traditionalist and observant church-goers of every kind: especially Catholics on issues such as birth control and abortion, Southern Baptists, Missouri Synod Lutherans and others.[126] Since the early 1980s, the Christian right has been associated with several nonprofit political and issue-oriented organizations including the Moral Majority, the Christian Coalition, Focus on the Family and the Family Research Council.[127][128] Christian left[edit] Main article: Evangelical left Evangelical political activists are not all on the right. There is a small group of liberal white Evangelicals.[129] Most African Americans belong to Baptist, Methodist or other denominations that share Evangelical beliefs; they are firmly in the Democratic coalition and (except for gay and abortion issues) are generally liberal in politics.[130] This section does not cite any references (sources). Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2014) The evangelical left or progressive evangelicals are Christians aligned with evangelicalism in the United States who generally function on the left wing of the movement, either politically or theologically or both. While the evangelical left is related to the wider Christian left, those who are part of the latter category are not always viewed as evangelical. Typically, members of the evangelical left affirm the primary tenets of evangelical theology, such as the doctrines of the Incarnation, atonement, and resurrection, and also see the Bible as a primary authority for the Church. Unlike many evangelicals, however, those on the evangelical left support what are often considered progressive or left wing political policies. They are often, for example, opposed to capital punishment and supportive of gun control and welfare programs. In many cases, they are also pacifists. Theologically they also often support and utilize modern biblical criticism, whereas more conservative evangelicals reject it. Some promote the legalization of same-sex marriage or protection of access to abortion for the society at large without necessarily endorsing the practice themselves. There is considerable dispute over how to even characterize the various segments of the evangelical theological and political spectra, and whether a singular discernible rift between "right" and "left" is oversimplified. However, to the extent that some simplifications are necessary to discuss any complex issue, it is recognized that modern trends like focusing on non-contentious issues (like poverty) and downplaying hot-button social issues (like abortion) tend to be key distinctives of the modern "evangelical left" or "emergent church" movement. While members of the evangelical left chiefly reside in mainline denominations, they are often heavily influenced by the Anabaptist social tradition. Recurrent themes[edit] Abortion[edit] Since 1980, a central issue motivating conservative Evangelicals' political activism is abortion. The 1973 decision in Roe v. Wade by the Supreme Court, which legalized abortion, proved decisive in bringing together Catholics and Evangelicals in a political coalition, which became known as the Religious Right when it successfully mobilized its voters behind presidential candidate Ronald Reagan in 1980.[131] Secularism[edit] Conservative Evangelicalism is a term used in Britain to describe a theological movement found within Evangelical Protestant Christianity, and is sometimes simply synonymous with Evangelical within the United Kingdom. The term is used more often in the first sense,[1] but conservative evangelicals would themselves tend to use it in the second.[2] Conservative evangelicals are sometimes called Fundamentalists[3] but typically reject that label and are keen to maintain their distinct identity, which is more Reformed.[4] In this sense, Conservative Evangelicalism can be thought of as being distinct from Liberal Evangelicalism, Open Evangelicalism and Charismatic Evangelicalism.[5] Some conservative evangelical groups oppose women ministers or women preachers in mixed congregations. Contents [hide] 1 History 1.1 Before the Second World War 1.2 1960s Protestantism is a form of Christian faith and practice which originated with the Protestant Reformation,[a] a movement against what its followers considered to be errors in the Roman Catholic Church.[1] It is one of the three major divisions of Christendom, together with Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy.[2][3] Anglicanism is sometimes considered to be independent from Protestantism.[b] The term refers to the letter of protestation from Lutheran princes in 1529 against an edict condemning the teachings of Martin Luther as heretical.[4] With its origins in Germany, the modern movement is popularly considered to have begun in 1517 when Luther published The Ninety-Five Theses as a reaction against abuses in the sale of indulgences, which purported to offer remission of sin to their purchasers.[5] Although there were earlier breaks from or attempts to reform the Roman Catholic Church—notably by Peter Waldo, Arnold of Brescia,[6] Girolamo Savonarola, John Wycliffe, and Jan Hus—only Luther succeeded in sparking a wider, lasting movement.[7] All the many Protestant denominations reject the notion of papal supremacy over the Church universal and generally deny the Roman Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation, but they disagree among themselves regarding real presence of Christ in the Eucharist.[8] The various denominations generally emphasize the priesthood of all believers, the doctrine of justification by faith alone (sola fide) rather than by or with good works, and a belief in the Bible alone (rather than with Catholic tradition) as the highest authority in matters of faith and morals (sola scriptura).[9] The "Five solae" summarize the reformers' basic differences in theological beliefs in opposition to the teaching of the Roman Catholic Church of the day.[10] Protestantism diffused on the European continent during the 16th century. Lutheranism spread from Germany into its surrounding areas,[c] Denmark,[d] Norway,[e] Sweden,[f] Prussia,[g] Latvia,[h] and Estonia,[i] as well as other smaller territories.[11] Reformed churches were founded primarily in Germany and its adjacent regions,[j] Hungary,[k] the Netherlands,[l] Scotland,[m] Switzerland,[n] and France[o] by such reformers as John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, and John Knox.[12] Arminianism[p] gained supporters in the Netherlands and parts of Germany. In 1534, King Henry VIII put an end to all papal jurisdiction in England[q] after the Pope failed to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon;[14] this opened the door to reformational ideas, notably during the following reign of Edward VI, through Thomas Cranmer, Richard Hooker, and other theologians.[15][16] There were also reformational efforts throughout continental Europe known as the Radical Reformation—a response to perceived corruption in both the Roman Catholic Church and the expanding Magisterial Reformation led by Luther and various other reformers—which gave rise to Anabaptist, Moravian, and other Pietistic movements.[17] In later centuries, Protestants developed their own culture, which made major contributions in education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy and the arts, and other fields.[18] Collectively encompassing more than 950 million adherents, or nearly forty percent of Christians worldwide, Protestantism is present on all populated continents.[3][19][20][r] The movement is more divided theologically and ecclesiastically than either Eastern Orthodoxy or Roman Catholicism,[21] lacking both structural unity and central human authority.[21] Some Protestant churches do have a worldwide scope and distribution of membership (notably, the Anglican Communion), while others are confined to a single country, or even are solitary church bodies or congregations (such as the former Prussian Union of churches).[21] Nondenominational, evangelical, independent and other churches are on the rise, and constitute a significant part of Protestant Christianity.[22] An exact number of Protestant denominations is difficult to calculate and depends on definition.[s] Nevertheless, most Protestants are members of just a handful of denominational families: Adventism, Anglicanism, Baptist churches, Reformed churches,[t] Lutheranism, Methodism, and Pentecostalism.[3] Contents [hide] 1 Terminology 2 Theology 2.1 Fundamental principles 2.2 Trinity 2.3 Five solae 2.4 Christ's presence in the Eucharist 3 History 3.1 Proto-Reformation 3.2 Reformation proper 3.3 Post-Reformation 4 Radical Reformation 5 Denominations 6 Major branches 6.1 Adventism 6.2 Anabaptism 6.3 Anglicanism 6.4 Baptists 6.5 Calvinism 6.6 Lutheranism 6.7 Methodism 6.8 Pentecostalism 6.9 Other Protestants 7 Interdenominational movements 7.1 Evangelicalism 7.2 Charismatic movement 7.3 Neo-charismatic churches 8 Other Protestant developments 8.1 Pietism 8.2 Puritanism, English dissenters and nonconformists 8.3 Neo-orthodoxy and Paleo-orthodoxy 8.4 Christian fundamentalism 8.5 Modernism and liberalism 9 Protestant culture 9.1 Thought and work ethic 9.2 Science 9.3 Government 9.4 Rights and liberty 9.5 Social teaching 9.6 Arts 10 Catholic and Eastern Orthodox responses 11 Ecumenism 12 Spread and demographics 13 See also 14 Notes 15 References 16 Further reading 17 External links Terminology[edit] The Memorial Church in Speyer, Germany Six princes of the Holy Roman Empire and rulers of fourteen Imperial Free Cities, who issued a protest or dissent against the edict of the Diet of Speyer, were the first to be called Protestants.[25] The edict reversed concessions made to the Lutherans with the approval of the Holy Roman Emperor three years earlier. The etymology of the word protestant is derived from Latin, pro ("for") and testari ("witness") and/or protestatio ("declare").[26] During the Reformation, the term was hardly used outside of the German politics. The word evangelical (German: evangelisch), which refers to the gospel, was much more widely used for those involved in the religious movement.[27] Nowadays, this word is still preferred among some of the historical Protestant denominations, above all the ones in the German-speaking area such as the EKD. Protestantism as a general term is now used in contradistinction to the other major Christian faiths, i.e. Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy. Initially, Protestant became a general term to mean any adherent to the Reformation movement in Germany and was taken up by Lutherans. Even though Martin Luther himself insisted on Christian or Evangelical as the only acceptable names for individuals who professed Christ. French and Swiss Protestants preferred the word reformed (French: réformé), regardless of one's affiliation with the Lutheran or the Reformed branch of Protestantism. The term Protestant later acquired a broader sense, referring to a member of any Western church, which subscribed to the main Protestant principles.[25] However, it is often misused to mention any church outside the Roman and the Eastern Orthodox communion. Theology[edit] Fundamental principles[edit] Not to be confused with Christian fundamentalism Key figures of the Protestant Reformation: Martin Luther and John Calvin depicted on a church pulpit. These reformers emphasised preaching and made it a centerpiece of worship. The Bible translated into vernacular by Martin Luther. The supreme authority of scripture is a fundamental principle of Protestantism. If a Christian denomination is to be considered Protestant, it must acknowledge the following three fundamental principles of Protestantism.[28] Scripture alone The belief in the Bible as the highest source of authority for the church. The early churches of the Reformation believed in a critical, yet serious, reading of scripture and holding the Bible as a source of authority higher than that of church tradition. The many abuses that had occurred in the Western Church prior to the Protestant Reformation led the Reformers to reject much of the Tradition of the Western Church, though some would maintain Tradition has been maintained and reorganized in the liturgy and in the confessions of the Protestant Churches of the Reformation. In the early 20th century there developed a less critical reading of the Bible in the United States that has led to a "fundamentalist" reading of Scripture. Christian Fundamentalists read the Bible as the "inerrant, infallible" Word of God, as do the Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Anglican and Lutheran churches, to name a few, but interpret it in a literalist fashion without using the historical critical method. Justification by faith alone The belief that believers are justified, or pardoned for sin, solely on condition of faith in Christ rather than a combination of faith and good works. For Protestants, good works are a necessary consequence rather than cause of justification.[29] Universal priesthood of believers The universal priesthood of believers implies the right and duty of the Christian laity not only to read the Bible in the vernacular, but also to take part in the government and all the public affairs of the Church. It is opposed to the hierarchical system which puts the essence and authority of the Church in an exclusive priesthood, and makes ordained priests the necessary mediators between God and the people.[29] Trinity[edit] See also: Trinity and Nontrinitarianism Protestants who adhere to the Nicene Creed believe in three Persons (God the Father, Jesus the Son, and the Holy Spirit) as one God. Others, beginning with the Polish Brethren and sustained by the Unitarians in Transylvania, England and the United States, reject the Trinity. Five solae[edit] Main article: Five solae The Five Solae of the Protestant Reformation Sola scriptura Sola fide Sola gratia Solus Christus Soli Deo gloria v t e The Five solae are five Latin phrases (or slogans) that emerged during the Protestant Reformation and summarize the reformers' basic differences in theological beliefs in opposition to the teaching of the Catholic Church of the day. The Latin word sola means "alone", "only", or "single". The use of the phrases as summaries of teaching emerged over time during the Reformation, based on the overarching principle of sola scriptura (by scripture alone). This idea contains the four main doctrines on the Bible: that its teaching is needed for salvation (necessity); that all the doctrine necessary for salvation comes from the Bible alone (sufficiency); that everything taught in the Bible is correct (inerrancy); and that, by the Holy Spirit overcoming sin, believers may read and understand truth from the Bible itself, though understanding is difficult, so the means used to guide individual believers to the true teaching is often mutual discussion within the church (clarity). The necessity and inerrancy were well-established ideas, garnering little criticism, though they later came under debate from outside during the Enlightenment. The most contentious idea at the time though was the notion that anyone could simply pick up the Bible and learn enough to gain salvation. Though the reformers were concerned with ecclesiology (the doctrine of how the church as a body works), they had a different understanding of the process in which truths in scripture were applied to life of believers, compared to the Catholics' idea that certain people within the church, or ideas that were old enough, had a special status in giving understanding of the text. The second main principle, sola fide (by faith alone), states that faith in Christ is sufficient alone for eternal salvation. Though argued from scripture, and hence logically consequent to sola scriptura, this is the guiding principle of the work of Luther and the later reformers. Because sola scriptura placed the Bible as the only source of teaching, sola fide epitomises the main thrust of the teaching the reformers wanted to get back to, namely the direct, close, personal connection between Christ and the believer, hence the reformers' contention that their work was Christocentric. The other solas, as statements, emerged later, but the thinking they represent was also part of the early Reformation. Solus Christus: Christ alone The Protestants characterize the dogma concerning the Pope as Christ's representative head of the Church on earth, the concept of works made meritorious by Christ, and the Catholic idea of a treasury of the merits of Christ and his saints, as a denial that Christ is the only mediator between God and man. Catholics, on the other hand, maintained the traditional understanding of Judaism on these questions, and appealed to the universal consensus of Christian tradition.[30] Sola Gratia: Grace alone Protestants perceived Roman Catholic salvation to be dependent upon the grace of God and the merits of one's own works. The reformers posited that salvation is a gift of God (i.e., God's act of free grace), dispensed by the Holy Spirit owing to the redemptive work of Jesus Christ alone. Consequently, they argued that a sinner is not accepted by God on account of the change wrought in the believer by God's grace, and that the believer is accepted without regard for the merit of his works, for no one deserves salvation.[Matt. 7:21] Soli Deo Gloria: Glory to God alone All glory is due to God alone since salvation is accomplished solely through his will and action—not only the gift of the all-sufficient atonement of Jesus on the cross but also the gift of faith in that atonement, created in the heart of the believer by the Holy Spirit. The reformers believed that human beings—even saints canonized by the Catholic Church, the popes, and the ecclesiastical hierarchy—are not worthy of the glory. Christ's presence in the Eucharist[edit] Main article: Eucharistic theology A Lutheran depiction of the Last Supper by Lucas Cranach the Elder, 1547 The Protestant movement began to diverge into several distinct branches in the mid-to-late 16th century. One of the central points of divergence was controversy over the Eucharist. Early Protestants rejected the Roman Catholic dogma of transubstantiation, which teaches that the bread and wine used in the sacrificial rite of the Mass lose their natural substance by being transformed into the body, blood, soul, and divinity of Christ. They disagreed with one another concerning the presence of Christ and his body and blood in Holy Communion. Lutherans hold that within the Lord's Supper the consecrated elements of bread and wine are the true body and blood of Christ "in, with, and under the form" of bread and wine for all those who eat and drink it,[1Cor 10:16] [11:20,27] [31] a doctrine that the Formula of Concord calls the Sacramental union.[32] God earnestly offers to all who receive the sacrament,[Lk 22:19-20][33] forgiveness of sins,[Mt 26:28][34] and eternal salvation.[35] The Reformed churches emphasize the real spiritual presence, or sacramental presence, of Christ, saying that the sacrament is a means of saving grace through which only the elect believer actually partakes of Christ, but merely with the bread and wine rather than in the elements. Calvinists deny the Lutheran assertion that all communicants, both believers and unbelievers, orally receive Christ's body and blood in the elements of the sacrament but instead affirm that Christ is united to the believer through faith—toward which the supper is an outward and visible aid. This is often referred to as dynamic presence. A Protestant holding a popular simplification of the Zwinglian view, without concern for theological intricacies as hinted at above, may see the Lord's Supper merely as a symbol of the shared faith of the participants, a commemoration of the facts of the crucifixion, and a reminder of their standing together as the body of Christ (a view referred to somewhat derisively as memorialism). History[edit] Main article: History of Protestantism Proto-Reformation[edit] See also: Arnoldists, Waldensians, Hussites, Lollards and Girolamo Savonarola Execution of Jan Hus in 1415 In the late 1130s, Arnold of Brescia, an Italian canon regular became one of the first theologians to attempt to reform the Roman Catholic Church. After his death, his teachings on apostolic poverty gained currency among Arnoldists, and later more widely among Waldensians and the Spiritual Franciscans, though no written word of his has survived the official condemnation. In the early 1170s, Peter Waldo founded the Waldensians. He advocated an interpretation of the Gospel that led to conflicts with the Roman Catholic Church. By 1215, the Waldensians were declared heretical and subject to persecution. Despite that, the movement continues to exist to this day in Italy, as a part of the wider Reformed tradition. In the 1370s, John Wycliffe—later dubbed the "Morning Star of Reformation"—started his activity as an English reformer. He rejected papal authority over secular power, translated the Bible into vernacular English, and preached anticlerical and biblically-centred reforms. Beginning in first decade of the 15th century, Jan Hus—a Roman Catholic priest, Czech reformist and professor—influenced by John Wycliffe's writings, founded the Hussite movement. He strongly advocated his reformist Bohemian religious denomination. He was excommunicated and burned at the stake in Constance, Bishopric of Constance in 1415 by secular authorities for unrepentant and persistent heresy. After his execution, a revolt erupted. Hussites defeated five continuous crusades proclaimed against them by the Pope. Later on, theological disputes caused a split within the Hussite movement. Utraquists maintained that both the bread and the wine should be administered to the people during the Eucharist. Another major faction were the Taborites, who opposed the Utraquists in the Battle of Lipany during the Hussite Wars. There were two separate parties among the Hussites: moderate and radical movements. Other smaller regional Hussite branches in Bohemia included Adamites, Orebites, Orphans and Praguers. The Hussite Wars concluded with the victory of Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund, his Catholic allies and moderate Hussites and the defeat of the radical Hussites. After the war, Hussitism was increasingly persecuted by the Catholics. Starting in 1475, an Italian Dominican friar Girolamo Savonarola was calling for a Christian renewal. Later on, Martin Luther himself read some of the friar's writings and praised him as a martyr and forerunner whose ideas on faith and grace anticipated Luther's own doctrine of justification by faith alone. Some of Hus' followers founded the Unitas Fratrum—"Unity of the Brethren"—which was renewed under the leadership of Count Nicolaus von Zinzendorf in Herrnhut, Saxony in 1722 after its almost total destruction in the Thirty Years' War and the Counter-Reformation. Today, it is usually referred to in English as the Moravian Church and in German as the Herrnhuter Brüdergemeinde. Reformation proper[edit] Main article: Protestant Reformation Distribution of Protestantism and Roman Catholicism in Central Europe on the eve of the Thirty Years' War. Approximate spread of Protestantism (blue) near the Reformation's peak in Europe. The Protestant Reformation began as an attempt to reform the Roman Catholic Church. On 31 October 1517, Martin Luther supposedly nailed his 95 theses against the selling of indulgences at the door of the All Saints', the Castle Church in Wittenberg. The theses debated and criticised the Church and the papacy, but concentrated upon the selling of indulgences and doctrinal policies about purgatory, particular judgment, and the authority of the pope. He would later write works on the Catholic devotion to Virgin Mary, the intercession of and devotion to the saints, the sacraments, mandatory clerical celibacy, monasticism, further on the authority of the pope, the ecclesiastical law, censure and excommunication, the role of secular rulers in religious matters, the relationship between Christianity and the law, good works, and the sacraments.[36] The Reformation was a triumph of literacy and the new printing press invented by Johannes Gutenberg.[37][u] Luther's translation of the Bible into German was a decisive moment in the spread of literacy, and stimulated as well the printing and distribution of religious books and pamphlets. From 1517 onward, religious pamphlets flooded much of Europe.[39][v] Following the excommunication of Luther and condemnation of the Reformation by the Pope, the work and writings of John Calvin were influential in establishing a loose consensus among various groups in Switzerland, Scotland, Hungary, Germany and elsewhere. After the expulsion of its Bishop in 1526, and the unsuccessful attempts of the Bern reformer William Farel, Calvin was asked to use the organisational skill he had gathered as a student of law to discipline the "fallen city" of Geneva. His Ordinances of 1541 involved a collaboration of Church affairs with the City council and consistory to bring morality to all areas of life. After the establishment of the Geneva academy in 1559, Geneva became the unofficial capital of the Protestant movement, providing refuge for Protestant exiles from all over Europe and educating them as Calvinist missionaries. The faith continued to spread after Calvin's death in 1563. Protestantism also spread from the German lands into France, where the Protestants were nicknamed Huguenots. Calvin continued to take an interest in the French religious affairs from his base in Geneva. He regularly trained pastors to lead congregations there. Despite heavy persecution, the Reformed tradition made steady progress across large sections of the nation, appealing to people alienated by the obduracy and the complacency of the Catholic establishment. French Protestantism came to acquire a distinctly political character, made all the more obvious by the conversions of nobles during the 1550s. This established the preconditions for a series of conflicts, known as the French Wars of Religion. The civil wars gained impetus with the sudden death of Henry II of France in 1559. Atrocity and outrage became the defining characteristics of the time, illustrated at their most intense in the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre of August 1572, when the Roman Catholic party annihilated between 30,000 and 100,000 Huguenots across France. The wars only concluded when Henry IV of France issued the Edict of Nantes, promising official toleration of the Protestant minority, but under highly restricted conditions. Roman Catholicism remained the official state religion, and the fortunes of French Protestants gradually declined over the next century, culminating in Louis XIV's Edict of Fontainebleau which revoked the Edict of Nantes and made Roman Catholicism the sole legal religion once again. In response to the Edict of Fontainebleau, Frederick William I, Elector of Brandenburg declared the Edict of Potsdam, giving free passage to Huguenot refugees. In the late 17th century many Huguenots fled to England, the Netherlands, Prussia, Switzerland, and the English and Dutch overseas colonies. A significant community in France remained in the Cévennes region. Parallel to events in Germany, a movement began in Switzerland under the leadership of Huldrych Zwingli. Zwingli was a scholar and preacher, who in 1518 moved to Zurich. Although the two movements agreed on many issues of theology, some unresolved differences kept them separate. A long-standing resentment between the German states and the Swiss Confederation led to heated debate over how much Zwingli owed his ideas to Lutheranism. The German Prince Philip of Hesse saw potential in creating an alliance between Zwingli and Luther. A meeting was held in his castle in 1529, now known as the Colloquy of Marburg, which has become infamous for its failure. The two men could not come to any agreement due to their disputation over one key doctrine. Henry VIII of England, known for his role in the separation of the Church of England from the Roman Catholic Church The political separation of the Church of England from Rome under Henry VIII brought England alongside this broad Reformation movement. Reformers in the Church of England alternated between sympathies for ancient Catholic tradition and more Reformed principles, gradually developing into a tradition considered a middle way (via media) between the Roman Catholic and Protestant traditions. The English Reformation followed a particular course. The different character of the English Reformation came primarily from the fact that it was driven initially by the political necessities of Henry VIII. King Henry decided to remove the Church of England from the authority of Rome. In 1534, the Act of Supremacy recognized Henry as the only Supreme Head on earth of the Church of England. Between 1535 and 1540, under Thomas Cromwell, the policy known as the Dissolution of the Monasteries was put into effect. Following a brief Roman Catholic restoration during the reign of Mary I, a loose consensus developed during the reign of Elizabeth I. It is this the Elizabethan Religious Settlement which largely formed Anglicanism into a distinctive church tradition. The compromise was uneasy and was capable of veering between extreme Calvinism on the one hand and Roman Catholicism on the other. It was relatively successful until the Puritan Revolution or English Civil War in the 17th century. The success of the Counter-Reformation on the Continent and the growth of a Puritan party dedicated to further Protestant reform polarised the Elizabethan Age. The early Puritan movement was a movement for reform in the Church of England. The desire was for the Church of England to resemble more closely the Protestant churches of Europe, especially Geneva. The later Puritan movement, often referred to as dissenters and nonconformists, eventually led to the formation of various Reformed denominations. John Knox, who led the Reformation in Scotland, founding Presbyterianism The Scottish Reformation of 1560 decisively shaped the Church of Scotland.[41] The Reformation in Scotland's case culminated ecclesiastically in the establishment of a church along Reformed lines, and politically in the triumph of English influence over that of France. John Knox is regarded as the leader of the Scottish Reformation. The Scottish Reformation Parliament of 1560 repudiated the pope's authority by the Papal Jurisdiction Act 1560, forbade the celebration of the Mass and approved a Protestant Confession of Faith. It was made possible by a revolution against French hegemony under the regime of the regent Mary of Guise, who had governed Scotland in the name of her absent daughter. Some of the most important activists of the Protestant Reformation included Jacobus Arminius, Theodore Beza, Martin Bucer, Andreas von Carlstadt, Heinrich Bullinger, Balthasar Hubmaier, Thomas Cranmer, William Farel, Thomas Müntzer, Laurentius Petri, Olaus Petri, Philipp Melanchthon, Menno Simons, Louis de Berquin, Primož Trubar and John Smyth. In the course of this religious upheaval, the German Peasants' War of 1524–25 swept through the Bavarian, Thuringian and Swabian principalities. After the Eighty Years' War in the Low Countries and the French Wars of Religion, the confessional division of the states of the Holy Roman Empire eventually erupted in the Thirty Years' War between 1618 and 1648. It devastated much of Germany, killing between 25% and 40% of its population.[42] The main tenets of the Peace of Westphalia, which ended the Thirty Years' War, were: All parties would now recognise the Peace of Augsburg of 1555, by which each prince would have the right to determine the religion of his own state, the options being Roman Catholicism, Lutheranism, and now Calvinism. (the principle of cuius regio, eius religio) Christians living in principalities where their denomination was not the established church were guaranteed the right to practice their faith in public during allotted hours and in private at their will. The treaty also effectively ended the papacy's pan-European political power. Pope Innocent X declared the treaty "null, void, invalid, iniquitous, unjust, damnable, reprobate, inane, empty of meaning and effect for all times" in his bull Zelo Domus Dei. European sovereigns, Roman Catholic and Protestant alike, ignored his verdict.[43] Post-Reformation[edit] See also: Great Awakenings and Azusa Street Revival Terauchi Masatake – October September Military Army Terauchi Hara Takashi ? ? Hara Takashi – September November Rikken Seiyukai Hara Assassinated During this interval Foreign Minister Uchida Kosai ?? ?? Uchida Kosai was the Acting Prime Minister Takahashi Korekiyo ?? ?? Takahashi Korekiyo – November June Rikken Seiyukai Takahashi — Kato Tomosaburo ?? ??? Kato Tomosaburo – June August Military Navy Kato To — Died in office of natural causes During this interval Foreign Minister Uchida Kosai ?? ?? Uchida Kosai was the Acting Prime Minister Yamamoto Gonnohyoe ?? ??? Yamamoto Gonnohyoe – September January Military Navy Yamamoto II — Kiyoura Keigo ?? ?? Kiyoura Keigo – January June None Kiyoura Kato Takaaki ?? ?? Kato Takaaki – June August Kenseikai Kato Ta — August January Resigned after the “Grand Coalition of the Three Pro Constitution Parties” collapsed Kato was then reinvited by the Prince Regent to form a new government with his own party Kenseito Today however his second term is generally regarded as continuation of his first Died in office of natural causes During this interval Interior Minister Wakatsuki Reijiro ?? ??? Wakatsuki Reijiro was the Acting Prime Minister Wakatsuki Reijiro ?? ??? Wakatsuki Reijiro – January April Kenseikai Wakatsuki I — Prime Ministers during the Showa period – edit Under the Showa Emperor ? Prime Minister Term of office Political Party Government Elected Ref Portrait Name Took Office Left Office Days Tanaka Giichi ?? ?? Tanaka Giichi – April July Rikken Seiyukai Tanaka G Osachi Hamaguchi ?? ?? Hamaguchi Osachi – July April Rikken Minseito Hamaguchi Incapacitated due to serious wound from assassination plot on November Foreign Minister Shidehara Kijuro served as Deputy Prime Minister until Hamaguchi s return to the office on March Wakatsuki Reijiro ?? ??? Wakatsuki Reijiro – April December Rikken Minseito Wakatsuki II — Inukai Tsuyoshi ?? ? Inukai Tsuyoshi – December May Rikken Seiyukai Inukai Assassinated During this interval Finance Minister Takahashi Korekiyo ?? ?? Takahashi Korekiyo was the Acting Prime Minister Saito Makoto ?? ? Saito Makoto – May July Military Navy Saito — Keisuke Okada ?? ?? Okada Keisuke – July March Military Navy Okada Thought to be killed by renegade soldiers during the February Incident Interior Minister Goto Fumio served as Deputy Prime Minister until Okada was found alive on February Koki Hirota ?? ?? Hirota Koki – March February None Hirota — Senjuro Hayashi ? ??? Hayashi Senjuro – February June Military Army Hayashi Fumimaro Konoe ?? ?? Konoe Fumimaro – June January None Konoe I — Hiranuma Kiichiro ?? ??? Hiranuma Kiichiro – January August None Hiranuma — Nobuyuki Abe ?? ?? Abe Nobuyuki – August January Military Army Abe N — Mitsumasa Yonai ?? ?? Yonai Mitsumasa – January July Military Navy Yonai — Fumimaro Konoe ?? ?? Konoe Fumimaro – July July Taisei Yokusankai Konoe II — July October Konoe III — Hideki Tojo ?? ?? Tojo Hideki – October July Taisei Yokusankai Tojo Kuniaki Koiso ?? ?? Koiso Kuniaki – July April Military Army Koiso — Kantaro Suzuki ?? ??? Suzuki Kantaro – April August Taisei Yokusankai Suzuki K — Higashikuni Naruhiko ???? ?? ? Higashikuni no miya Naruhiko o – August October Imperial Family Higashikuni — The only member of the Imperial Family to serve as Prime Minister Kijuro Shidehara ?? ??? Shidehara Kijuro – October May None Shidehara — Shigeru Yoshida ?? ? Yoshida Shigeru – May May Japan Liberal Yoshida I Prime Ministers during the Showa period – edit Under the Showa Emperor ? Prime Minister Term of office Political Party Government Elected Ref Portrait Name Took Office Left Office Days Gen Coun Tetsu Katayama ?? ? Katayama Tetsu – Rep for Kanagawa rd May March JSP Nihon Shakaito Katayama JSP–DP–PCP Under Allied Occupation The first Prime Minister and the first socialist to serve as Prime Minister of Japan Member of Diet from to Formed a coalition government with the Democratic Party and the People s Cooperative Party Hitoshi Ashida ?? ? Ashida Hitoshi – Rep for Kyoto nd March October DP Minshuto Ashida DP–JSP–PCP — — Under Allied Occupation Ashida s cabinet resigned after seven months in office due to alleged ministerial corruption in the Showa Electric scandal Shigeru Yoshida ?? ? Yoshida Shigeru – Rep for Kochi At large October February DLP Minshu Jiyuto Yoshida II DLP — — February October Liberal Jiyuto Yoshida III Reshuffle DLP Lib –DP October May Yoshida IV Liberal — May December Yoshida V Liberal Under Allied Occupation until the Treaty of San Francisco came into force on April Developed the Yoshida Doctrine prioritising economic development and reliance on United States military protection Ichiro Hatoyama ?? ?? Hatoyama Ichiro – Rep for Tokyo st December March JDP Nihon Minshuto Hatoyama I I JDP — — March November Hatoyama I II JDP — November December LDP Jiminto Hatoyama I III LDP — — Rebuilt diplomatic ties with the Soviet Union Favored parole for some of the Class A war criminals who had been sentenced to life imprisonment at the Tokyo Trial Tanzan Ishibashi ?? ?? Ishibashi Tanzan – Rep for Shizuoka nd December February LDP Jiminto Ishibashi LDP — Incapacitated due to minor stroke on January Foreign Minister Kishi Nobusuke served as Deputy Prime Minister until February Nobusuke Kishi ? ?? Kishi Nobusuke – Rep for Yamaguchi st February June LDP Jiminto Kishi I Reshuffle LDP — — June July Kishi II Reshuffle LDP Hayato Ikeda ?? ?? Ikeda Hayato – Rep for Hiroshima nd July December LDP Jiminto Ikeda I LDP — — December December Ikeda II Reshuffle LDP December November Ikeda III Reshuffle LDP — Eisaku Sato ?? ?? Sato Eisaku – Rep for Yamaguchi nd November February LDP Jiminto Sato I Reshuffle LDP — February January Sato II Reshuffle LDP January July Sato III Reshuffle Kakuei Tanaka ?? ?? Tanaka Kakuei – Rep for Niigata rd July December LDP Jiminto Tanaka K I LDP — — December December Tanaka K II Reshuffle LDP — Takeo Miki ?? ?? Miki Takeo – Rep for Tokushima At large December December LDP Jiminto Miki Reshuffle LDP — Takeo Fukuda ?? ?? Fukuda Takeo – Rep for Gunma rd December December LDP Jiminto Fukuda T Reshuffle LDP Masayoshi Ohira ?? ?? Ohira Masayoshi – Rep for Kagawa nd December November LDP Jiminto Ohira I LDP — — November June Ohira II LDP — Died in office of natural causes During this interval Chief Cabinet Secretary Masayoshi Ito ?? ?? Ito Masayoshi was the Acting Prime Minister Zenko Suzuki ?? ?? Suzuki Zenko – Rep for Iwate st July November LDP Jiminto Suzuki Z Reshuffle LDP Yasuhiro Nakasone ??? ?? Nakasone Yasuhiro – Rep for Gunma rd November December LDP Jiminto Nakasone I LDP — — December July Nakasone II Reshuffle LDP–NLC July November Nakasone III LDP Noboru Takeshita ?? ? Takeshita Noboru – Rep for Shimane At large November June LDP Jiminto Takeshita Reshuffle LDP — — Prime Ministers during the Heisei period –present edit Under Emperor Akihito ? Prime Minister Term of office Political Party Government Elected Ref Portrait Name Took Office Left Office Days Gen Coun Sosuke Uno ?? ?? Uno Sosuke – Rep for Shiga At large June August LDP Jiminto Uno LDP — Soon after he was elected Prime Minister allegations arose that he had an extramarital relationship with a geisha which damaged his reputation and his party s performance in the House of Councillors election for which he resigned He died in Served as Minister of Defense Chief of the Science and Technology Agency – Chief of the Civil Administration Agency – Minister of Economy Trade and Industry and Minister for Foreign Affairs – Member of the Diet from to Toshiki Kaifu ?? ?? Kaifu Toshiki – Rep for Aichi rd August February LDP Jiminto Kaifu I LDP — — February November Kaifu II Reshuffle LDP — Defeated in he was the longest serving member of the lower house of the Diet and he was also the first former prime minister to be defeated at a re election since Served as Deputy Chief Cabinet Secretary – Minister of Education – – Member of the Diet from to Kiichi Miyazawa ?? ?? Miyazawa Kiichi – Rep for Hiroshima rd November August LDP Jiminto Kiichi Reshuffle LDP — Originally a bureaucrat in the Treasury Ministry he accompanied Prime Minister Shigeru Yoshida at the Treaty of San Francisco A firm critic of the revision of the constitution he advocated peace throughout his political career After his party s stunning defeat in the general election he was forced to resign the Prime Ministership but became Minister of Finance in the cabinet of Keizo Obuchi and Yoshiro Mori from to He died in Served as Minister of Economy Trade and Industry – – – – Chief Cabinet Secretary – Minister of Finance – Minister of Posts and Telecommunications and Minister of Agriculture Forestry and Fisheries Member of the House of Councillors – Symbols Flag Coat of Arms Notable people Gallery See also References External links History edit The city of Yauco was named after the river Yauco which was originally known as coayuco by the Taínos meaning "yucca plantation" The area of Yauco was considered as the capital of "Boriken" Taíno name of Puerto Rico and was governed by Agüeybana the most powerful Taíno "cacique" chief in the island All the other Caciques were subject to and had to obey Agüeybaná even though they governed their own tribes Upon Agüeybaná s death in his nephew Güeybaná also known as Agüeybaná II became the most powerful Cacique in the island Agüeybaná II had his doubts about the "godly" status of the Spaniards He came up with a plan to test these doubts he and Urayoán cacique of Añasco sent some of their tribe members to lure a Spaniard by the name of Diego Salcedo into a river and drown him They watched over Salcedo s body to make sure that he would not resuscitate Salcedo s death was enough to convince him and the rest of the Taíno people that the Spaniards were not gods This in turn led to the failed Taíno rebellion of In the Spanish settlers of the region built a small chapel and named it "Nuestra Señora del Santísimo Rosario" Our Lady of the Rosary The settlers sent Fernando Pacheco as their representative to the Spanish Government to request the establishment of a municipality since one of the requisites to such a request the establishment of a place of worship had been met On February the King of Spain granted the settlers their request and the town of Yauco was established Fernando Pacheco was named First Lieutenant of War of the new town th century Corsican immigration edit Early Yauco Coffee Plantation Pre Main article Corsican immigration to Puerto Rico The island of Puerto Rico is very similar in geography to the island of Corsica and therefore appealed to the many Corsicans who wanted to start a "new" life Under the Spanish Royal Decree of Graces the Corsicans and other immigrants were granted land and initially given a "Letter of Domicile" after swearing loyalty to the Spanish Crown and allegiance to the Catholic Church After five years they could request a "Letter of Naturalization" that would make them Spanish subjects Hundreds of Corsicans and their families immigrated to Puerto Rico from as early as and their numbers peaked in the s The first Spanish settlers settled and owned the land in the coastal areas the Corsicans tended to settle the mountainous southwestern region of the island primary in the towns of Adjuntas Lares Utuado Ponce Coamo Yauco Guayanilla and Guánica However it was Yauco whose rich agricultural area attracted the majority of the Corsican settlers The three main crops in Yauco were coffee sugar cane and tobacco The new settlers dedicated themselves to the cultivation of these crops and within a short period of time some were even able to own and operate their own grocery stores However it was with the cultivation of the coffee bean that they would make their fortunes Cultivation of coffee in Yauco originally began in the Rancheras and Diego Hernández sectors and later extended to the Aguas Blancas Frailes and Rubias sectors The Mariani family created a machine out of a cotton gin in the s which was used in the dehusking of coffee This represented a significant improvement in Puerto Rico s coffee appearance and an opportunity to stand out in the international coffee market By the s the Corsican settlers were the leaders of the coffee industry in Puerto Rico and seven out of ten coffee plantations were owned by Corsicans Intentona de Yauco edit Flag flown by Fidel Vélez and his men during the "Intentona de Yauco" revoltMain article Intentona de Yauco The second and last major revolt against Spanish colonial rule in Puerto Rico by Puerto Rico s pro independence movement known as the Intentona de Yauco a k a the "Attempted Coup of Yauco" was staged in Yauco The revolt which occurred on of March was organized by Antonio Mattei Lluberas Mateo Mercado and Fidel Vélez and was backed up by leaders of "El Grito de Lares" the first major independence attempt who were in exile in New York City as members of the Puerto Rican Revolutionary Committee

Great Awakening First (c. 1730–1755) Second (c. 1790–1840) Third (c. 1850–1900) Fourth (c. 1960–1980) v t e The Great Awakenings were periods of rapid and dramatic religious revival in Anglo-American religious history. The First Great Awakening was an evangelical and revitalization movement that swept Protestant Europe and British America, especially the American colonies in the 1730s and 1740s, leaving a permanent impact on American Protestantism. It resulted from powerful preaching that gave listeners a sense of deep personal revelation of their need of salvation by Jesus Christ. Pulling away from ritual, ceremony, sacramentalism and hierarchy, it made Christianity intensely personal to the average person by fostering a deep sense of spiritual conviction and redemption, and by encouraging introspection and a commitment to a new standard of personal morality.[44] 1839 Methodist camp meeting during the Second Great Awakening in the U.S. The Second Great Awakening began around 1790. It gained momentum by 1800. After 1820, membership rose rapidly among Baptist and Methodist congregations, whose preachers led the movement. It was past its peak by the late 1840s. It has been described as a reaction against skepticism, deism, and rationalism, although why those forces became pressing enough at the time to spark revivals is not fully understood.[45] It enrolled millions of new members in existing evangelical denominations and led to the formation of new denominations. The Third Great Awakening refers to a hypothetical historical that was marked by religious activism in American history and spans the late 1850s to the early 20th century.[46] It affected pietistic Protestant denominations and had a strong element of social activism.[47] It gathered strength from the postmillennial belief that the Second Coming of Christ would occur after mankind had reformed the entire earth. It was affiliated with the Social Gospel Movement, which applied Christianity to social issues and gained its force from the Awakening, as did the worldwide missionary movement. New groupings emerged, such as the Holiness, Nazarene, and Christian Science movements.[48] The Fourth Great Awakening was a Christian religious awakening that some scholars—most notably, Robert Fogel—say took place in the United States in the late 1960s and early 1970s, while others look at the era following World War II. The terminology is controversial. Thus, the idea of a Fourth Great Awakening itself has not been generally accepted.[49] A noteworthy development in 20th-century Protestant Christianity was the rise of the modern Pentecostal movement. Sprung from Methodist and Wesleyan roots, it arose out of meetings at an urban mission on Azusa Street in Los Angeles. From there it spread around the world, carried by those who experienced what they believed to be miraculous moves of God there. These Pentecost-like manifestations have steadily been in evidence throughout the history, such as seen in the two Great Awakenings. Pentecostalism, which in turn birthed the Charismatic movement within already established denominations, continues to be an important force in Western Christianity. In the United States and elsewhere in the world, there has been a marked rise in the evangelical wing of Protestant denominations, especially those that are more exclusively evangelical, and a corresponding decline in the mainstream liberal churches. In the post–World War I era, Liberal Christianity was on the rise, and a considerable number of seminaries held and taught from a liberal perspective as well. In the post–World War II era, the trend began to swing back towards the conservative camp in America's seminaries and church structures. In Europe, there has been a general move away from religious observance and belief in Christian teachings and a move towards secularism. The Enlightenment is largely responsible for the spread of secularism. Several scholars have argued for a link between the rise of secularism and Protestantism, attributing it to the wide-ranging freedom in the Protestant countries.[50] In North America, South America and Australia Christian religious observance is much higher than in Europe. United States remains particularly religious in comparison to other developed countries. South America, historically Roman Catholic, has experienced a large Evangelical and Pentecostal infusion in the 20th and 21st centuries. Radical Reformation[edit] Main article: Radical Reformation Dissatisfaction with the outcome of a disputation in 1525 prompted Swiss Brethren to part ways with Huldrych Zwingli. Unlike mainstream Lutheran, Calvinist and Zwinglian movements, the Radical Reformation, which had no state sponsorship, generally abandoned the idea of the "Church visible" as distinct from the "Church invisible". It was a rational extension of the state-approved Protestant dissent, which took the value of independence from constituted authority a step further, arguing the same for the civic realm. The Radical Reformation was non-mainstream. Protestant ecclesial leaders such as Hubmaier and Hofmann preached the invalidity of infant baptism, advocating baptism as following conversion ("believer's baptism") instead. This was not a doctrine new to the reformers, but was taught by earlier groups, such as the Albigenses in 1147. In the view of many associated with the Radical Reformation, the Magisterial Reformation had not gone far enough. Radical Reformer, Andreas von Bodenstein Karlstadt, for example, referred to the Lutheran theologians at Wittenberg as the "new papists".[51] Since the term "magister" also means "teacher", the Magisterial Reformation is also characterized by an emphasis on the authority of a teacher. This is made evident in the prominence of Luther, Calvin, and Zwingli as leaders of the reform movements in their respective areas of ministry. Because of their authority, they were often criticized by Radical Reformers as being too much like the Roman Popes. A more political side of the Radical Reformation can be seen in the thought and practice of Hans Hut, although typically Anabaptism has been associated with pacifism. Denominations[edit] See also: List of Christian denominations § Protestantism and List of the largest Protestant churches Protestantism as state religion Protestants refer to specific groupings of congregations or churches that share in common foundational doctrines and the name of their groups as denominations.[52] The term is to be distinguished from branch (denominational family; tradition), communion and congregation (church).[citation needed] Protestants reject the Roman Catholic Church's doctrine that it is the one true church, believing in the invisible church, which consists of all who profess faith in Jesus Christ.[53] Some Protestant denominations are less accepting of other denominations, and the basic orthodoxy of some is questioned by most of the others. Individual denominations also have formed over very subtle theological differences. Other denominations are simply regional or ethnic expressions of the same beliefs. Because the five solas are the main tenets of the Protestant faith, non-denominational groups and organizations are also considered Protestant. Various ecumenical movements have attempted cooperation or reorganization of the various divided Protestant denominations, according to various models of union, but divisions continue to outpace unions, as there is no overarching authority to which any of the churches owe allegiance, which can authoritatively define the faith. Most denominations share common beliefs in the major aspects of the Christian faith while differing in many secondary doctrines, although what is major and what is secondary is a matter of idiosyncratic belief. Several countries have established their national churches, linking the ecclesiastical structure with the state. Jurisdictions where a Protestant denomination has been established as a state religion include several Nordic countries; Denmark (including Greenland),[54] the Faroe Islands (its church being independent since 2007),[55] Iceland[56] and Norway[57][58][59] have established Evangelical Lutheran churches. Tuvalu has the only established church in Reformed tradition in the world, while Tonga—in the Methodist tradition.[60] The Church of England is the officially established religious institution in England,[61][62][63] and also the Mother Church of the worldwide Anglican Communion. In 1869, Finland was the first Nordic country to disestablish its Evangelical Lutheran church by introducing the Church Act.[w] Although the church still maintains a special relationship with the state, it is not described as a state religion in the Finnish Constitution or other laws passed by the Finnish Parliament.[64] In 2000, Sweden was the second Nordic country to do so.[65] Major branches[edit] Protestants can be differentiated according to how they have been influenced by important movements since the Reformation, today regarded as branches. Some of these movements have a common lineage, sometimes directly spawning individual denominations. Due to the earlier stated multitude of denominations, this section discusses only the largest denominational families, or branches, widely considered to be a part of Protestantism. These are, in alphabetical order: Adventist, Anglican, Baptist, Calvinist (Reformed), Lutheran, Methodist and Pentecostal. Historical chart of the main Protestant branches Adventism[edit] Main article: Adventism Adventism began in the 19th century in the context of the Second Great Awakening revival in the United States. The name refers to belief in the imminent Second Coming (or "Second Advent") of Jesus Christ. William Miller started the Adventist movement in the 1830s. His followers became known as Millerites. Although the Adventist churches hold much in common, their theologies differ on whether the intermediate state is unconscious sleep or consciousness, whether the ultimate punishment of the wicked is annihilation or eternal torment, the nature of immortality, whether or not the wicked are resurrected after the millennium, and whether the sanctuary of Daniel 8 refers to the one in heaven or one on earth.[66] The movement has encouraged the examination of the whole Bible, leading Seventh-day Adventists and some smaller Adventist groups to observe the Sabbath. The General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists has compiled that church's core beliefs in the 28 Fundamental Beliefs (1980 and 2005), which use Biblical references as justification. In 2010, Adventism claimed some 22 million believers scattered in various independent churches.[67] The largest church within the movement—the Seventh-day Adventist Church—has more than 18 million members. Anabaptism[edit] Main article: Anabaptism An Amish family in a horse-drawn square buggy Anabaptism traces its origins to the Radical Reformation. Anabaptists believe in delaying baptism until the candidate confesses his or her faith. Although some consider this movement to be an offshoot of Protestantism, others see it as a distinct one.[68][69] The Amish, Hutterites, and Mennonites are direct descendants of the movement. Schwarzenau Brethren, Bruderhof, and the Apostolic Christian Church are considered later developments among the Anabaptists. The name Anabaptist, meaning "one who baptizes again", was given them by their persecutors in reference to the practice of re-baptizing converts who already had been baptized as infants.[70] Anabaptists required that baptismal candidates be able to make their own confessions of faith and so rejected baptism of infants. The early members of this movement did not accept the name Anabaptist, claiming that since infant baptism was unscriptural and null and void, the baptizing of believers was not a re-baptism but in fact their first real baptism. As a result of their views on the nature of baptism and other issues, Anabaptists were heavily persecuted during the 16th century and into the 17th by both Magisterial Protestants and Roman Catholics.[x] While most Anabaptists adhered to a literal interpretation of the Sermon on the Mount, which precluded taking oaths, participating in military actions, and participating in civil government, some who practiced re-baptism felt otherwise.[y] They were thus technically Anabaptists, even though conservative Amish, Mennonites, and Hutterites and some historians tend to consider them as outside of true Anabaptism. Anabaptist reformers of the Radical Reformation are diveded into Radical and the so-called Second Front. Some important Radical Reformation theologians were John of Leiden, Thomas Müntzer, Kaspar Schwenkfeld, Sebastian Franck, Menno Simons. Second Front Reformers included Hans Denck, Conrad Grebel, Balthasar Hubmaier and Felix Manz. Anglicanism[edit] Main article: Anglicanism The various editions of the Book of Common Prayer contain the words of structured services of worship in the Anglican Church Anglicanism comprises the Church of England and churches which are historically tied to it or hold similar beliefs, worship practices and church structures.[71] The word Anglican originates in ecclesia anglicana, a medieval Latin phrase dating to at least 1246 that means the English Church. There is no single "Anglican Church" with universal juridical authority, since each national or regional church has full autonomy. As the name suggests, the communion is an association of churches in full communion with the Archbishop of Canterbury. The great majority of Anglicans are members of churches which are part of the international Anglican Communion,[72] which has 80 million adherents.[73] The Church of England declared its independence from the Catholic Church at the time of the Elizabethan Religious Settlement.[74] Many of the new Anglican formularies of the mid-16th century corresponded closely to those of contemporary Reformed tradition. These reforms were understood by one of those most responsible for them, the then Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Cranmer, as navigating a middle way between two of the emerging Protestant traditions, namely Lutheranism and Calvinism.[75] By the end of the century, the retention in Anglicanism of many traditional liturgical forms and of the episcopate was already seen as unacceptable by those promoting the most developed Protestant principles. Unique to Anglicanism is the Book of Common Prayer, the collection of services that worshippers in most Anglican churches used for centuries. While it has since undergone many revisions and Anglican churches in different countries have developed other service books, the Book of Common Prayer is still acknowledged as one of the ties that bind the Anglican Communion together. Baptists[edit] Main article: Baptists Baptists subscribe to a doctrine that baptism should be performed only for professing believers. Baptists subscribe to a doctrine that baptism should be performed only for professing believers (believer's baptism, as opposed to infant baptism), and that it must be done by complete immersion (as opposed to affusion or sprinkling). Other tenets of Baptist churches include soul competency (liberty), salvation through faith alone, Scripture alone as the rule of faith and practice, and the autonomy of the local congregation. Baptists recognize two ministerial offices, pastors and deacons. Baptist churches are widely considered to be Protestant churches, though some Baptists disavow this identity.[76] Diverse from their beginning, those identifying as Baptists today differ widely from one another in what they believe, how they worship, their attitudes toward other Christians, and their understanding of what is important in Christian discipleship.[77] Historians trace the earliest church labeled Baptist back to 1609 in Amsterdam, with English Separatist John Smyth as its pastor.[78] In accordance with his reading of the New Testament, he rejected baptism of infants and instituted baptism only of believing adults.[79] Baptist practice spread to England, where the General Baptists considered Christ's atonement to extend to all people, while the Particular Baptists believed that it extended only to the elect. In 1638, Roger Williams established the first Baptist congregation in the North American colonies. In the mid-18th century, the First Great Awakening increased Baptist growth in both New England and the South.[80] The Second Great Awakening in the South in the early 19th century increased church membership, as did the preachers' lessening of support for abolition and manumission of slavery, which had been part of the 18th-century teachings. Baptist missionaries have spread their church to every continent.[79] The Baptist World Alliance reports more than 41 million members in more than 150,000 congregations.[81] In 2002, there were over 100 million Baptists and Baptistic group members worldwide and over 33 million in North America.[79] The largest Baptist association is the Southern Baptist Convention, with the membership of associated churches totaling more than 15 million.[80] Calvinism[edit] Main article: Calvinism John Calvin's theological thought influenced a variety of Congregational, Continental Reformed, United and Presbyterian churches. Calvinism, also called the Reformed tradition, was advanced by several theologians such as Martin Bucer, Heinrich Bullinger, Peter Martyr Vermigli, and Huldrych Zwingli, but this branch of Christianity bears the name of the French reformer John Calvin because of his prominent influence on it and because of his role in the confessional and ecclesiastical debates throughout the 16th century. Today, this term also refers to the doctrines and practices of the Reformed churches of which Calvin was an early leader. Less commonly, it can refer to the individual teaching of Calvin himself. The particulars of Calvinist theology may be stated in a number of ways. Perhaps the best known summary is contained in the five points of Calvinism, though these points identify the Calvinist view on soteriology rather than summarizing the system as a whole. Broadly speaking, Calvinism stresses the sovereignty or rule of God in all things — in salvation but also in all of life. This concept is seen clearly in the doctrines of predestination and total depravity. The biggest Reformed association is the World Communion of Reformed Churches with more than 80 million members in 211 member denominations around the world.[82][83] There are more conservative Reformed federations like the World Reformed Fellowship and the International Conference of Reformed Churches, as well as independent churches. Lutheranism[edit] Main article: Lutheranism Luther's rose, a widely recognized symbol for Lutheranism Lutheranism identifies with the theology of Martin Luther—a German friar, ecclesiastical reformer, and theologian. Lutheranism advocates a doctrine of justification "by grace alone through faith alone on the basis of Scripture alone", the doctrine that scripture is the final authority on all matters of faith, denying the belief of the Catholic Church defined at the Council of Trent concerning authority coming from both the Scriptures and Tradition.[84] In addition, Lutheranism accepts the teachings of the first four ecumenical councils of the undivided Christian Church.[85][86] Unlike the Reformed tradition, Lutherans retain many of the liturgical practices and sacramental teachings of the pre-Reformation Church, with a particular emphasis on the Eucharist, or Lord's Supper. Lutheran theology differs from Reformed theology in Christology, the purpose of God's Law, the divine grace, the concept of perseverance of the saints, and predestination. Today, Lutheranism is one of the largest branches of Protestantism. With approximately 80 million adherents,[87] it constitutes the third most common Protestant confession after historically Pentecostal denominations and Anglicanism.[3] The Lutheran World Federation, the largest global communion of Lutheran churches represents over 72 million people.[88] Additionally, there are also many smaller bodies such as the International Lutheran Council and the Confessional Evangelical Lutheran Conference, as well as independent churches. Methodism[edit] Main article: Methodism Methodism identifies principally with the theology of John Wesley—an Anglican priest and evangelist. This evangelical movement originated as a revival within the 18th-century Church of England and became a separate Church following Wesley's death. Because of vigorous missionary activity, the movement spread throughout the British Empire, the United States, and beyond, today claiming approximately 80 million adherents worldwide.[89] Originally it appealed especially to workers, agricultural workers, and slaves. Soteriologically, most Methodists are Arminian, emphasizing that Christ accomplished salvation for every human being, and that humans must exercise an act of the will to receive it (as opposed to the traditional Calvinist doctrine of monergism). Methodism is traditionally low church in liturgy, although this varies greatly between individual congregations; the Wesleys themselves greatly valued the Anglican liturgy and tradition. Methodism is known for its rich musical tradition; John Wesley's brother, Charles, was instrumental in writing much of the hymnody of the Methodist Church,[90] and many other eminent hymn writers come from the Methodist tradition. Pentecostalism[edit] Main article: Pentecostalism A modern Protestant worship band leading a contemporary worship session Pentecostalism is a movement that places special emphasis on a direct personal experience of God through the baptism with the Holy Spirit. The term Pentecostal is derived from Pentecost, the Greek name for the Jewish Feast of Weeks. For Christians, this event commemorates the descent of the Holy Spirit upon the followers of Jesus Christ, as described in the second chapter of the Book of Acts. This branch of Protestantism is distinguished by belief in the baptism with the Holy Spirit as an experience separate from conversion that enables a Christian to live a Holy Spirit–filled and empowered life. This empowerment includes the use of spiritual gifts such as speaking in tongues and divine healing—two other defining characteristics of Pentecostalism. Because of their commitment to biblical authority, spiritual gifts, and the miraculous, Pentecostals tend to see their movement as reflecting the same kind of spiritual power and teachings that were found in the Apostolic Age of the early church. For this reason, some Pentecostals also use the term Apostolic or Full Gospel to describe their movement. Pentecostalism eventually spawned hundreds of new denominations, including large groups such as the Assemblies of God and the Church of God in Christ, both in the United States and elsewhere. There are over 279 million Pentecostals worldwide, and the movement is growing in many parts of the world, especially the global South. Since the 1960s, Pentecostalism has increasingly gained acceptance from other Christian traditions, and Pentecostal beliefs concerning Spirit baptism and spiritual gifts have been embraced by non-Pentecostal Christians in Protestant and Catholic churches through the Charismatic Movement. Together, Pentecostal and Charismatic Christianity numbers over 500 million adherents.[91] Other Protestants[edit] Main article: List of Christian denominations § Protestantism There are many other Protestant denominations that do not fit neatly into the mentioned branches, and are far smaller in membership. Some groups of individuals who hold basic Protestant tenets identify themselves simply as "Christians" or "born-again Christians". They typically distance themselves from the confessionalism and/or creedalism of other Christian communities[92] by calling themselves "non-denominational" or "evangelical". Often founded by individual pastors, they have little affiliation with historic denominations.[93] Hussitism follows the teachings of Czech reformer Jan Hus, who became the best-known representative of the Bohemian Reformation and one of the forerunners of the Protestant Reformation. This predominantly religious movement was propelled by social issues and strengthened Czech national awareness. Among present-day Christians, Hussite traditions are represented in the Moravian Church, Unity of the Brethren, and the refounded Czechoslovak Hussite churches.[94] The Plymouth Brethren are a conservative, low church, evangelical movement, whose history can be traced to Dublin, Ireland, in the late 1820s, originating from Anglicanism.[95][96] Among other beliefs, the group emphasizes sola scriptura. Brethren generally see themselves not as a denomination, but as a network, or even as a collection of overlapping networks, of like-minded independent churches. Although the group refused for many years to take any denominational name to itself—a stance that some of them still maintain—the title The Brethren, is one that many of their number are comfortable with in that the Bible designates all believers as brethren. The Holiness movement refers to a set of beliefs and practices emerging from 19th-century Methodism, and to a number of evangelical denominations, parachurch organizations, and movements which emphasized those beliefs as a central doctrine. There are an estimated 12 million adherents in Holiness movement churches.[97] The Salvation Army and the Wesleyan Church are notable examples. Quakers, or Friends, are members of a family of religious movements collectively known as the Religious Society of Friends. The central unifying doctrine of these movements is the priesthood of all believers.[98][99] Many Friends view themselves as members of a Christian denomination. They include those with evangelical, holiness, liberal, and traditional conservative Quaker understandings of Christianity. Unlike many other groups that emerged within Christianity, the Religious Society of Friends has actively tried to avoid creeds and hierarchical structures.[100] Interdenominational movements[edit] There are also Christian movements which cross denominational lines and even branches, and cannot be classified on the same level previously mentioned forms. Evangelicalism is a prominent example. Some of those movements are active exclusively within Protestantism, some are Christian-wide. Transdenominational movements are sometimes capable of affecting parts of the Roman Catholic Church, such as does it the Charismatic Movement, which aims to incorporate beliefs and practices similar to Pentecostals into the various branches of Christianity. Neo-charismatic churches are sometimes regarded as a subgroup of the Charismatic Movement. Nondenominational churches often adopt, or are akin to one of these movements. Evangelicalism[edit] Main article: Evangelicalism Billy Graham, a prominent evangelical revivalist, preaching in Duisburg, Germany in 1954 Evangelicalism, or Evangelical Protestantism,[z] is a worldwide, transdenominational movement which maintains that the essence of the gospel consists in the doctrine of salvation by grace through faith in Jesus Christ's atonement.[101][102] Evangelicals are Christians who believe in the centrality of the conversion or "born again" experience in receiving salvation, believe in the authority of the Bible as God's revelation to humanity and have a strong commitment to evangelism or sharing the Christian message. It gained great momentum in the 18th and 19th centuries with the emergence of Methodism and the Great Awakenings in Britain and North America. The origins of Evangelicalism are usually traced back to the English Methodist movement, Nicolaus Zinzendorf, the Moravian Church, Lutheran pietism, Presbyterianism and Puritanism.[67] Among leaders and major figures of the Evangelical Protestant movement were John Wesley, George Whitefield, Jonathan Edwards, Billy Graham, Harold John Ockenga, John Stott and Martyn Lloyd-Jones. There are an estimated 285,480,000 Evangelicals, corresponding to 13.1% of the Christian population and 4.1% of the total world population. The Americas, Africa and Asia are home to the majority of Evangelicals. The United States has the largest concentration of Evangelicals.[103] Evangelicalism is gaining popularity both in and outside the English-speaking world, especially in Latin America and the developing world. Charismatic movement[edit] Main article: Charismatic movement The Charismatic movement is the international trend of historically mainstream congregations adopting beliefs and practices similar to Pentecostals. Fundamental to the movement is the use of spiritual gifts. Among Protestants, the movement began around 1960. In America, Episcopalian Dennis Bennett is sometimes cited as one of the charismatic movement's seminal influence.[104] In the United Kingdom, Colin Urquhart, Michael Harper, David Watson and others were in the vanguard of similar developments. The Massey conference in New Zealand, 1964 was attended by several Anglicans, including the Rev. Ray Muller, who went on to invite Bennett to New Zealand in 1966, and played a leading role in developing and promoting the Life in the Spirit seminars. Other Charismatic movement leaders in New Zealand include Bill Subritzky. Larry Christenson, a Lutheran theologian based in San Pedro, California, did much in the 1960s and 1970s to interpret the charismatic movement for Lutherans. A very large annual conference regarding that matter was held in Minneapolis. Charismatic Lutheran congregations in Minnesota became especially large and influential; especially "Hosanna!" in Lakeville, and North Heights in St. Paul. The next generation of Lutheran charismatics cluster around the Alliance of Renewal Churches. There is considerable charismatic activity among young Lutheran leaders in California centered around an annual gathering at Robinwood Church in Huntington Beach. Richard A. Jensen's Touched by the Spirit published in 1974, played a major role of the Lutheran understanding to the charismatic movement. In Congregational and Presbyterian churches which profess a traditionally Calvinist or Reformed theology there are differing views regarding present-day continuation or cessation of the gifts (charismata) of the Spirit.[105][106] Generally, however, Reformed charismatics distance themselves from renewal movements with tendencies which could be perceived as overemotional, such as Word of Faith, Toronto Blessing, Brownsville Revival and Lakeland Revival. Prominent Reformed charismatic denominations are the Sovereign Grace Churches and the Every Nation Churches in the USA, in Great Britain there is the Newfrontiers churches and movement, which leading figure is Terry Virgo.[107] A minority of Seventh-day Adventists today are charismatic. They are strongly associated with those holding more "progressive" Adventist beliefs. In the early decades of the church charismatic or ecstatic phenomena were commonplace.[108][109] Neo-charismatic churches[edit] Main article: Neo-charismatic churches Neo-charismatic churches are a category of churches in the Christian Renewal movement. Neo-charismatics include the Third Wave, but are broader. Now more numerous than Pentecostals (first wave) and charismatics (second wave) combined, owing to the remarkable growth of postdenominational and independent charismatic groups.[110] Neo-charismatics believe in and stress the post-Biblical availability of gifts of the Holy Spirit, including glossolalia, healing, and prophecy. They practice laying on of hands and seek the "infilling" of the Holy Spirit. However, a specific experience of baptism with the Holy Spirit may not be requisite for experiencing such gifts. No single form, governmental structure, or style of church service characterizes all neo-charismatic services and churches. Some nineteen thousand denominations, with approximately 295 million individual adherents, are identified as neo-charismatic.[111] Neo-charismatic tenets and practices are found in many independent, nondenominational or post-denominational congregations, with strength of numbers centered in the African independent churches, among the Han Chinese house-church movement, and in Latin American churches. Other Protestant developments[edit] A plenty of other movements and thoughts to be distinguished from the widespread transdenominational ones and branches appeared within Protestant Christianity. Some of them are also in evidence today. Others appeared during the centuries following the Reformation and disappeared gradually with the time, such as much of Pietism. Some inspired the current transdenominational ones, such as Evangelicalism which has its foundation in the Christian fundamentalism. Pietism[edit] Main article: Pietism Pietism was a movement within Lutheranism that began in the late 17th century, reached its zenith in the mid-18th century, and declined through the 19th century. It almost vanished in America by the end of the 20th century. While declining as an identifiable Lutheran group, some of its theological tenets influenced other Protestant branches, inspiring Anglican priest John Wesley to begin the Methodist movement and Alexander Mack to begin the Brethren movement. The Pietist movement combined the Lutheranism of the time with the Reformed emphasis on individual piety and living a vigorous Christian life.[112] Though Pietism shares an emphasis on personal behavior with the Puritan movement, and the two are often confused, there are important differences, particularly in the concept of the role of religion in government.[113] Puritanism, English dissenters and nonconformists[edit] Main articles: Puritanism, English Dissenters, Independent (religion) and Nonconformism John Cotton, who sparked the Antinomian Controversy with his free grace theology The Puritans were a group of English Protestants in the 16th and 17th centuries, which sought to purify the Church of England of what they considered to be Roman Catholic practices, maintaining that the church was only partially reformed. Puritanism in this sense was founded by some of the returning clergy exiled under Mary I shortly after the accession of Elizabeth I of England in 1558, as an activist movement within the Church of England. Puritans were blocked from changing the established church from within, and were severely restricted in England by laws controlling the practice of religion. Their beliefs, however, were transported by the emigration of congregations to the Netherlands (and later to New England), and by evangelical clergy to Ireland (and later into Wales), and were spread into lay society and parts of the educational system, particularly certain colleges of the University of Cambridge. They took on distinctive beliefs about clerical dress and in opposition to the episcopal system, particularly after the 1619 conclusions of the Synod of Dort they were resisted by the English bishops. They largely adopted Sabbatarianism in the 17th century, and were influenced by millennialism. They formed, and identified with various religious groups advocating greater purity of worship and doctrine, as well as personal and group piety. Puritans adopted a Reformed theology, but they also took note of radical criticisms of Zwingli in Zurich and Calvin in Geneva. In church polity, some advocated for separation from all other Christians, in favor of autonomous gathered churches. These separatist and independent strands of Puritanism became prominent in the 1640s, when the supporters of a Presbyterian polity in the Westminster Assembly were unable to forge a new English national church. Neo-orthodoxy and Paleo-orthodoxy[edit] Main articles: Neo-orthodoxy and Paleo-orthodoxy Karl Barth, often regarded as the greatest Protestant theologian of the twentieth century[114][115] A non-fundamentalist rejection of liberal Christianity, associated primarily with Karl Barth and Jürgen Moltmann, neo-orthodoxy sought to counter-act the tendency of liberal theology to make theological accommodations to modern scientific perspectives. Sometimes called "Crisis theology", according to the influence of philosophical existentialism on some important segments of the movement; also, somewhat confusingly, sometimes called neo-evangelicalism. Paleo-orthodoxy is a movement similar in some respects to neo-evangelicalism but emphasizing the ancient Christian consensus of the undivided church of the first millennium AD, including in particular the early creeds and church councils as a means of properly understanding the scriptures. This movement is cross-denominational and the most notable exponent in the movement is United Methodist theologian Thomas Oden. Christian fundamentalism[edit] Main article: Christian fundamentalism In reaction to liberal Bible critique, fundamentalism arose in the 20th century, primarily in the United States, among those denominations most affected by Evangelicalism. Fundamentalist theology tends to stress Biblical inerrancy and Biblical literalism. Toward the end of the 20th century, some have tended to confuse evangelicalism and fundamentalism, however the labels represent very distinct differences of approach that both groups are diligent to maintain, although because of fundamentalism's dramatically smaller size it often gets classified simply as an ultra-conservative branch of evangelicalism. Modernism and liberalism[edit] Main article: Liberal Christianity Modernism and liberalism do not constitute rigorous and well-defined schools of theology, but are rather an inclination by some writers and teachers to integrate Christian thought into the spirit of the Age of Enlightenment. New understandings of history and the natural sciences of the day led directly to new approaches to theology. Protestant culture[edit] Main article: Protestant culture The Berlin Cathedral, a United Protestant cathedral in Berlin. Max Weber's The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. Although the Reformation was a religious movement, it also had a strong impact on all other aspects of life: marriage and family, education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy, and the arts.[18] Protestant churches reject the idea of a celibate priesthood and thus allow their clergy to marry.[28] Many of their families contributed to the development of intellectual elites in their countries.[116] Since about 1950, women have entered the ministry, and some have assumed leading positions (e.g. bishops), in most Protestant churches. As the Reformers wanted all members of the church to be able to read the Bible, education on all levels got a strong boost. By the middle of the eighteenth century, the literacy rate in England was about 60 per cent, in Scotland 65 per cent, and in Sweden eight of ten men and women were able to read and to write.[117] Colleges and universities were founded. For example, the Puritans who established Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1628 founded Harvard College only eight years later. About a dozen other colleges followed in the 18th century, including Yale (1701). Pennsylvania also became a centre of learning.[118][119] Members of mainline Protestant denominations have played leadership roles in many aspects of American life, including politics, business, science, the arts, and education. They founded most of the country's leading institutes of higher education.[120] Thought and work ethic[edit] The Protestant concept of God and man allows believers to use all their God-given faculties, including the power of reason. That means that they are allowed to explore God's creation and, according to Genesis 2:15, make use of it in a responsible and sustainable way. Thus a cultural climate was created that greatly enhanced the development of the humanities and the sciences.[121] Another consequence of the Protestant understanding of man is that the believers, in gratitude for their election and redemption in Christ, are to follow God's commandments. Industry, frugality, calling, discipline, and a strong sense of responsibility are at the heart of their moral code.[122][123] In particular, Calvin rejected luxury. Therefore, craftsmen, industrialists, and other businessmen were able to reinvest the greater part of their profits in the most efficient machinery and the most modern production methods that were based on progress in the sciences and technology. As a result, productivity grew, which led to increased profits and enabled employers to pay higher wages. In this way, the economy, the sciences, and technology reinforced each other. The chance to participate in the economic success of technological inventions was a strong incentive to both inventors and investors.[124][125][126][127] The Protestant work ethic was an important force behind the unplanned and uncoordinated mass action that influenced the development of capitalism and the Industrial Revolution. This idea is also known as the "Protestant ethic thesis."[128] In a factor analysis of the latest wave of World Values Survey data, Arno Tausch (Corvinus University of Budapest) found that Protestantism emerges to be very close to combining religion and the traditions of liberalism. The Global Value Development Index, calculated by Tausch, relies on the World Values Survey dimensions such as trust in the state of law, no support for shadow economy, postmaterial activism, support for democracy, a non-acceptance of violence, xenophobia and racism, trust in transnational capital and Universities, confidence in the market economy, supporting gender justice, and engaging in environmental activism, etc.[129] Episcopalians and Presbyterians, as well as other "WASPS", tend to be considerably wealthier[130] and better educated (having graduate and post-graduate degrees per capita) than most other religious groups in United States,[131] and are disproportionately represented in the upper reaches of American business,[132] law and politics, especially the Republican Party.[133] Numbers of the most wealthy and affluent American families as the Vanderbilts and the Astors, Rockefeller, Du Pont, Roosevelt, Forbes, Whitneys, the Morgans and Harrimans are Mainline Protestant families.[130] Science[edit] Columbia University, established by the Church of England Protestantism has had an important influence on science. According to the Merton Thesis, there was a positive correlation between the rise of English Puritanism and German Pietism on the one hand and early experimental science on the other.[134] The Merton Thesis has two separate parts: Firstly, it presents a theory that science changes due to an accumulation of observations and improvement in experimental technique and methodology; secondly, it puts forward the argument that the popularity of science in 17th-century England and the religious demography of the Royal Society (English scientists of that time were predominantly Puritans or other Protestants) can be explained by a correlation between Protestantism and the scientific values.[135] Merton focused on English Puritanism and German Pietism as having been responsible for the development of the scientific revolution of the 17th and 18th centuries. He explained that the connection between religious affiliation and interest in science was the result of a significant synergy between the ascetic Protestant values and those of modern science.[136] Protestant values encouraged scientific research by allowing science to identify God's influence on the world—his creation—and thus providing a religious justification for scientific research.[134] According to Scientific Elite: Nobel Laureates in the United States by Harriet Zuckerman, a review of American Nobel prizes awarded between 1901 and 1972, 72% of American Nobel Prize laureates identified a Protestant background.[137] Overall, 84.2% of all the Nobel Prizes awarded to Americans in Chemistry,[137] 60% in Medicine,[137] and 58.6% in Physics[137] between 1901 and 1972 were won by Protestants. According to 100 Years of Nobel Prize (2005), a review of Nobel prizes awarded between 1901 and 2000, 65.4% of Nobel Prize Laureates, have identified Christianity in its various forms as their religious preference (423 prizes).[138] While 32% have identified with Protestantism in its various forms (208 prize).[138] although Protestant comprise 11.6%-13% of the world's population. Government[edit] In the Middle Ages, the Church and the worldly authorities were closely related. Martin Luther separated the religious and the worldly realms in principle (doctrine of the two kingdoms).[139] The believers were obliged to use reason to govern the worldly sphere in an orderly and peaceful way. Luther's doctrine of the priesthood of all believers upgraded the role of laymen in the church considerably. The members of a congregation had the right to elect a minister and, if necessary, to vote for his dismissal (Treatise On the right and authority of a Christian assembly or congregation to judge all doctrines and to call, install and dismiss teachers, as testified in Scripture; 1523).[140] Calvin strengthened this basically democratic approach by including elected laymen (church elders, presbyters) in his representative church government.[141] The Huguenots added regional synods and a national synod, whose members were elected by the congregations, to Calvin's system of church self-government. This system was taken over by the other reformed churches.[142] Politically, Calvin favoured a mixture of aristocracy and democracy. He appreciated the advantages of democracy: "It is an invaluable gift, if God allows a people to freely elect its own authorities and overlords."[143] Calvin also thought that earthly rulers lose their divine right and must be put down when they rise up against God. To further protect the rights of ordinary people, Calvin suggested separating political powers in a system of checks and balances (separation of powers). Thus he and his followers resisted political absolutism and paved the way for the rise of modern democracy.[144] Besides England, the Netherlands were, under Calvinist leadership, the freest country in Europe in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. It granted asylum to philosophers like Baruch Spinoza and Pierre Bayle. Hugo Grotius was able to teach his natural-law theory and a relatively liberal interpretation of the Bible.[145] Consistent with Calvin's political ideas, Protestants created both the English and the American democracies. In seventeenth-century England, the most important persons and events in this process were the English Civil War, Oliver Cromwell, John Milton, John Locke, the Glorious Revolution, the English Bill of Rights, and the Act of Visual artists Miscellaneous Gallery See also Notes References Actors actresses comedians and directors edit A Henry Darrow Benicio del Toro Erik Estrada Political leaders edit Sherif Hussein ibn Ali King Abdullah I of Jordan King Talal of Jordan King Hussein I King Abdullah II of Jordan HE Wasfi Al Tal Queen Noor of Jordan Queen Rania of Jordan Politicians edit HE Sheikh Ali Abu Rubeiha Senator Faisal al Fayez Abdelsalam Al Majali Actors Filmmakers and Fashion Models edit Shaken Aimanov film director actor Timur Bekmambetov born film director Rashid Nugmanov born film director Gulshat Omarova born writer film director and actress Alyona Subbotina born international fashion model Artists edit Altynai Asylmuratova born ballerina Abylkhan Kasteev painter Businessmen edit Timur Kulibayev born businessman Oleg Novachuk businessman currently Chief Executive of Kazakhmys Composers and Musicians edit Kulyash Baiseitova opera singer Marat Bisengaliev born violinist and director of Orchestras Alan Buribaev born conductor Jambyl Jabayev akyn student of Suinbay Shamshi Kaldayakov composer Erik Kurmangaliev opera singer Makhambet Otemisuly akyn composer leader of rebellious movement against Russian Empire Roza Rymbaeva born singer Kurmangazy Sagyrbayuly composer instrumentalist and folk artist Tolkyn Zabirova born singer Roza Baglanova opera singer Heads of State edit Ablai Khan khan of Middle jüz leader of Kazakh Khanate Abul Khair Khan khan of Junior jüz Zhumabay Shayakhmetov First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Kazakh SSR Jumabek Tashenov Prime Minister Dinmukhamed Kunayev First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Kazakh SSR Prime Minister President Kazakhstan Academy of Sciences Nursultan Nazarbaev born President of Kazakhstan Kerei Khan founder and co leader of Kazakh Khanate Janybek Khan founder and co leader of Kazakh Khanate Burunduk Khan leader of the Kazakh Khanate Kasym Khan leader of the Kazakh Khanate Kenesary Khan Khan of all three jüzes Tauke Khan leader of the Kazakh Khanate Haknazar Khan leader of the Kazakh Khanate Shygai Khan leader of the Kazakh Khanate Tawekel Khan leader of the Kazakh Khanate Esim Khan leader of the Kazakh Khanate Salkam Jangir Khan leader of the Kazakh Khanate Batyr Khan leader of the Kazakh Khanate Philosophers edit Abay Qunanbayuli poet translator composer and philosopher Al Farabi scientist philosopher and mathematician Khoja Ahmad Yasavi poet and Sufi Muslim mystic Politicians edit Daniyal Akhmetov born Prime Minister Byrganym Aytimova born ambassador Minister Akhmet Baitursynov poet writer and politician Osman Batur also referred to as Ospan fighter for the freedom of the Qazaq people in Xinjiang Alikhan Bokeikhanov writer political activist and environmental scientist Mirjaqip Dulatuli poet writer and a leader of Alash Orda government Janabil born politician in China Gulzhana Karagusova born member of Majilis Minister of Labor and Social Protection Ashat Kerimbay born politician in China Eset Kotibaruli — leader of the anti colonial war against Russian Empire Bolat Nurgaliyev born diplomat Makhambet Otemisuly akyn composer leader of rebellious movement against Russian Empire Kanat Saudabayev born politician Secretary of State Minister of Foreign Affairs Zhumabay Shayakhmetov First Secretary of the Kazakh SSR Mustafa Shokay leader of the Kokand revolt against the Bolsheviks Olzhas Suleimenov born poet politician and anti nuclear activist Imangali Tasmagambetov born Prime Minister Marat Tazhin born Foreign Minister Isatay Taymanuly leader of rebellious movement against Russian Empire Kassym Jomart Tokayev born Foreign Minister Prime Minister Zhanseit Tuimebayev born Minister of Education and Science Aman Tuleev born governor of Kemerovo Oblast Russia Military edit Syrym Datuly leader of the Kazakhs of the Junior Jüz Nurken Abdirov fighter pilot Hero of Soviet Union Toktar Aubakirov born first Kazakh in space MP Raiymbek Batyr warrior in the th century against Dzungars Talgat Begeldinov born fighter pilot Hero of the Soviet Union of WWII Manshuk Mametova machine gunner Hero of the Soviet Union of WWII Baurzhan Momyshuly writer Hero of the Soviet Union of WWII Talgat Musabayev born test pilot former cosmonaut Director of Aerospace Agency of Republic of Kazakhstan Rakhimzhan Qoshqarbaev first soldier to raise the Soviet Flag over the Reichstag in Berlin Scientists edit Applied and Natural Science Ken Alibek born microbiologist Kaisha Atakhanova born genetic biologist Alikhan Bokeikhanov writer political activist and environmental scientist Shafik Chokin engineer President of Academy of Sciences Kanysh Satpayev engineer geologist President of Academy of Sciences Social Science Al Farabi scientist philosopher and mathematician Sarsen Amanzholov linguist Turkologist Orazak Ismagulov born anthropologist Zhenis Kembayev born jurist Marat Aldangorovich Sarsembaev born jurist Sportspersons edit Boxers edit Serik Konakbaev born silver medal winner of the Summer Olympics Bolat Niyazymbetov born bronze medal winner of the Summer Olympics Yermakhan Ibraimov born bronze medal winnerr of the Summer Olympics champion of the Summer Olympics Bekzat Sattarkhanov champion of the Summer Olympics Bulat Jumadilov born silver medal winner of the Summer Olympics and Summer Olympics Mukhtarkhan Dildabekov born silver medal winner of the Summer Olympics Bakhtiyar Artayev born champion of the Summer Olympics Serik Yeleuov born bronze medal winner of the Summer Olympics Bakhyt Sarsekbayev born champion of the Summer Olympics Yerkebulan Shynaliyev born bronze medal winner of the Summer Olympics Serik Sapiyev born boxer champion of the Summer Olympics Yerdos Zhanabergenov born boxer Gennady Golovkin born silver medal winner of the Summer Olympics current WBA Super Middleweight and IBO champion Wrestling edit Greek Roman Classic Style edit Shamil Serikov champion of the Summer Olympics Jacksylyk Ushkempirov born champion of the Summer Olympics Daulet Turlykhanov born silver medal winner of the Summer Olympics silver bronze vinner of the Summer Olympics Nurbakyt Tengizbayev born bronze medal winner of the Summer Olympics Asset Mambetov born bronze medal winner of the Summer Olympics Freestyle edit Maulen Mamyrov born bronze medal winner of the Summer Olympics Islam Bairamukov born silver medal winner of the Summer Olympics Soccer edit Seilda Baishakov born FC Kairat Kairat Ashirbekov born footballer Samat Smakov born footballer Nurbol Zhumaskaliyev born footballer Other edit Qajymuqan freestyle wrestler Assan Bazayev born cyclist Kaisar Nurmagambetov born flatwater canoer Darmen Sadvakasov born chess grandmaster Aliya Yussupova born athlete Yernar Yerimbetov born gymnast Radik Zhaparov born ski jumper Dias Keneshev born biathlete Askhat Zhitkeyev born judoka silver prize winner of the Summer Olympics Arman Chilmanov born taekwondo athlete bronze prize vinner of the Summer Olympics Alexander Vinokourov born cyclist Writers and Poets edit Abay Qunanbayuli poet composer and philosopher Ibrahim Altynsarin pedagogue writer Mukhtar Auezov writer public figure Bukhar zhirau Kalmakanov poet Akhmet Baytursinuli poet writer pedagogue and politician Alikhan Bokeikhanov writer political activist and environmental scientist Mirjaqip Dulatuli poet writer and a leader of Alash Orda government Qabdesh Jumadilov born writer Bakhytzhan Kanapyanov born poet and lyricist Mukaghali Makatayev akyn poet Kasym Amanjolov poet Baurzhan Momyshuly writer Hero of the Soviet Union of WWII Sabit Mukanov poet and writer Gabit Musirepov — writer playwright Saken Seyfullin poet and writer national activist Magjan Jumabayev writer publicist founder of modern Kazakh literature Mukhtar Shakhanov born writer lawmaker ambassador Olzhas Suleimenov born poet politician and anti nuclear activist Sultanmahmut Toraygirov poet and writer Shokan Walikhanuli scholar ethnographer and historian Khoja Akhmet Yassawi poet and Sufi Muslim mystic Tauman Torekhanov born writer journalist and executive editor Gallery edit Kassym Jomart Tokayev Assan Bazayev Shamshi Kaldayakov Talgat Musabayev Freedom heroes edit Koitalel Arap Samoei Me Katilili Wa Menza mother of colonial resistance Field Marshal Dedan Kimathi Field Marshal Musa Mwariama General Waruhiu Itote General China Jomo Kenyatta J M Kariuki Jaramogi Oginga Odinga Ramogi Achieng Oneko Paul Ngei Tom Mboya Masinde Muliro Tom Mboya Kubu Kubu Politicians edit Moody Awori Vice President August – December Nicholas Biwott Member of Parliament former Cabinet Ministère Cyrus Jirongo Josephat Karanja Vice President – J M Kariuki assassinated Uhuru Kenyatta son of the first President Jomo Kenyatta and th President of Kenya present Mwai Kibaki rd President of Kenya Dec – March Michael Wamalwa Kijana Vice President January – Aug Kenneth Matiba Tom Mboya Cabinet Minister assassinated Musalia Mudavadi Vice President November – December Joseph Murumbi Vice President – Simeon Nyachae Charity Ngilu first female to run for presidency Raila Odinga former Cabinet Minister Member of Parliament Son of Oginga Odinga and former Prime Minister Quincy Timberlake President Platinum Centraliser and Unionist Party of Kenya Appolo Ohanga James Orengo Robert Ouko Cabinet Minister assassinated Pio Gama Pinto assassinated Charles Rubia George Saitoti Vice President May – Dec Apr – August Makhan Singh freedom fighter Fitz R S de Souza Member of Parliament and Deputy Speaker – Kalonzo Musyoka Vice President Jan – March William Ruto Deputy Vice President April present Martha Karua John Michuki Njenga Karume Jeremiah Nyagah long serving cabinet minister and member of Parliament Barack Obama US President to date Obama held both U S and Kenyan citizenship as a child but lost his Kenyan citizenship automatically on his rd birthday Martin Nyaga Wambora the First Governor of Embu former chairman of Kenya Airports Authority successful Runyenjes MP and noted former Kenya s trade secretary Businesspeople edit Awadh Saleh Sherman Activists edit Fidelis Wainaina Wanjiru Kihoro Thomas Muguro Njoroge Administrators edit Edward H Ntalami Chris Kirubi Muthui Kariuki Patrick Emongaise Academics edit Dr Geoffrey William Griffin born June died June Louis Leakey paleontologist Dr Meave G Leakey paleontologist Mary Douglas Leakey paleontologist Dr Richard Leakey paleontologist environmentalist politician and former Director of Kenya Wildlife Services KWS Prof Wangari Maathai born environmentalist women s rights activist politician and Nobel Prize winner Prof Ali Mazrui Prof Ratemo Michieka Prof Peter Amollo Odhiambo thoracic and cardiovascular surgeon Prof Thomas R Odhiambo entomologist and environmental scientist Florence Wambugu born plant pathologist and virologist Prof Mike Boit Department of Sports Science Kenyatta University Prof Bethwell Allan Ogot Prof Calestous Juma Professor of the Practice of International Development Director Science Technology Globalization Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs Harvard University Prof Simeon Hongo OMINDE historian Writers edit See List of Kenyan writers Religious leaders edit Cardinal John Njue Cardinal Maurice Michael Otunga Archbishop John Njenga Apostle Doctor Peter Irimia Sportspersons edit Matthew Birir Amos Biwott Mike Boit Richard Chelimo Joyce Chepchumba Jason Dunford Paul Ereng Ben Jipcho Julius Kariuki Kipchoge Keino Ezekiel Kemboi Joseph Keter Wilson Kipketer born and raised in Kenya now a citizen of Denmark Wilson Boit Kipketer Moses Kiptanui Sally Kipyego All American runner for Texas Tech University Ismael Kirui Samson Kitur Daniel Komen Julius Korir Paul Korir Reuben Kosgei Bernard Lagat Tegla Loroupe Edith Masai Shekhar Mehta Catherine Ndereba Noah Ngeny John Ngugi Margaret Okayo Dennis Oliech soccer player now based in France Yobes Ondieki Henry Rono Peter Rono David Rudisha Moses Tanui William Tanui Naftali Temu Paul Tergat Steve Tikolo widely regarded in cricket as the best batsman outside of the test playing nations Robert Wangila McDonald Mariga soccer player now based in Italy plays for Serie A club Internazionale Victor Wanyama soccer player now based in England plays for Southampton and captains the Kenya national team Musicians edit Musa Juma Rhumba Maestro Fundi Konde David Kabaka Eric Wainaina musician Henrie Mutuku Daniel Owino Misiani Suzzana Owíyo Tony Nyadundo David Mathenge a k a Nameless Ken Ring Fadhili William of Malaika fame Jua Cali Stella Mwangi Nonini Roger Whittaker Dave Okumu Aakash Shah DJ Nairobi Joseph Kamaru Kikuyu songwriter Mukhtar Shakhanov Aliya Yussupova Dariga Nazarbayeva Absattar Derbisali Marat Tazhin Nayef Al Qadi Ali Abu al Ragheb Ali Khulqi Al Sharyri Ali Suheimat Sheikh Attallah Suheimat Salah Suheimat MP Dr Tareq Suheimat Bahjat Talhouni former Prime Minister Fayez Tarawneh Novelists poets researchers and writers edit Nasr Abdel Aziz Eleyan Samer Libdeh researcher writer Suleiman Mousa historian writer Haider Mahmoud poet writer Abdel Rahman Munif novelist Samer Raimouny poet activist Mustafa Wahbi Mustafa Wahbi Al Tal poet Military men edit Captain Muath al Kasasbeh Royal Jordanian Air Force pilot captured held hostage and burned alive by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant Habis Al Majali Abdelsalam al Majali Brigadier General Abdullah Ayasrah General Muhammad Suheimat died Physicians edit Abdelsalam al Majali Daoud Hanania Tareq Suheimat Athletes edit Amer Deeb Dima and Lama Hattab ultramarathon runners Musicians edit Mahmoud Radaideh Former ambassadors edit Nabil Talhouni Business people edit Iman Mutlaq Mohammed Shehadeh José Ferrer Juano Hernández Jennifer Lopez Rita Moreno Choe Yong–Sool Seo Bok–Sub Sin Sang–Chul Kim Hak–Bong Kim Gwi–Chul Kim Jang–Sub Kim Jae–hee Kim gwi–hwa Artists edit Visual artists edit Main article List of Korean painters Media artists edit Paik Nam June Dancers edit Sujin Kang Hong Professional Break Dancer Red Bull BC One Halla Pai Huhm Filmmakers edit See also List of Korean film directors Ahn Byeong ki Bong Joon ho Hong Sang soo Im Kwon taek Jang Joon hwan Kim Jee woon Kim Ki duk Lee Chang dong Park Chan wook Nelson Shin Song Hae sung Yoon Je kyoon Poets and authors edit See also List of Korean language poets Baek Minseok Baek Seok Bang Hyun seok Chae Ho ki Chan Jeong Cheong Chi yong poet Choi Seung ho poet Cho Sung ki novelist Choi Il nam novelist Choi Soo cheol Chun Woon young Do Jong hwan poet Gu Hyo seo Ha Geun chan author Hailji author Han Bi ya a travel writer Han Mahlsook novelist Ha Seong ran author Heo Su gyeong poet Hong Sung won author Hwang In suk poet Hwang Ji u poet Hyun Kil un Jang Eun jin Jang Jeong il Jang Seok nam poet Jeon Gyeong rin Jeon Sang guk Jeong Do sang Jung Ihyun Jung Hansuk Jung Mi kyung Kim Byeol ah Kye Yong mook Han Chang hun author Kang Chol hwan an author of The Aquariums of Pyongyang Kang Sok kyong Kang Young sook Ko Un Kim Sa in Kim Eon Kim Gi taek Kim Gwangrim Kim Gyeong uk Kim Haki Kim Hu ran Kim Jae Young Kim Jong gil Kim Ju yeong Kim Kwang kyu Kim Kyung ju Kim Mi wol Kim Sang ok Kim Sinyong Kim Seon wu Kim Seong dong Kim Seung hee Kim Sowol Kim Tak hwan Kim Wonu Kim Yeong hyeon Kim Yong man Kwak Jae gu Kwon Jeong Saeng Kwon Yeo sun Lee Eun sang poet Lee Kang baek Korean playwright Lee Ho cheol Lee Hye gyeong Lee Hyeonggi born Lee In hwa Lee Jangwook author and poet Lee Ki ho author Lee Mun ku author Lee Oyoung author and critic Lee Soon won Lee Sungboo poet and novelist Lee Yuksa Lee Yun gi Lee Yuntaek dramatist and poet Ma Jonggi born Lee Mankyo Moon Chung hee Moon Taejun Nam Jung hyun Oh Kyu won born Oh Sangwon author Oh Soo yeon author Oh Taeseok Park Chong hwa novelist Paik Gahuim Park Hee jin Park Hyoung su Park Jaesam born Park Jeong dae Park Mok wol Park Kyung ni Ynhui Park Park Sang ryung Park Sangsoon Park Taesun Park Tae won Park Yeonghan Park Yong rae Han Yong un Ra Hee duk Seo Jeong in Seo Hajin Shin Yong mok born Sim Yunkyung So Young en Song Gisuk Song Giwon Song Sokze Song Yeong Sung Chan gyeong – Yi In seong Yi Kyoung ja Yun Dong ju Fashion designers edit Andre Kim Richard Chai Cho Young Wan Businesspeople edit See also Category South Korean businesspeople Ahn Cheol Soo Chung Ju yung Chung Mong hun Euh Yoon dae Lee Byung chul Lee Kun Hee David Chang Entertainers edit Actors edit See also List of South Korean actors Jang Keun suk Jung Joon ho Daniel Dae Kim Jung Il woo Kim Woo Bin Lee Dong wook Park Yoochun Comedians edit Ryan Bang Won Ho Chung Defconn H Eugene Margaret Cho Haha Jeong Hyeong don Jeong Jun ha