reach a specific year. Some high schools depend on the University of Buenos Aires, and these require an admission course when students are taking the last year of high school. These high schools are ILSE, CNBA, Escuela Superior de Comercio Carlos Pellegrini and Escuela de Educación Técnica Profesional en Producción Agropecuaria y Agroalimentaria (School of Professional Technique Education in Agricultural and Agri-food Production). The last two do have a specific orientation. In December 2006 the Chamber of Deputies of the Argentine Congress passed a new National Education Law restoring the old system of primary followed by secondary education, making secondary education obligatory and a right, and increasing the length of compulsory education to 13 years. The government vowed to put the law in effect gradually, starting in 2007.[112] University education[edit] See also: University Revolution and List of Argentine universities There are many public universities in Argentina, as well as a number of private universities. The University of Buenos Aires, one of the top learning institutions in South America, has produced five Nobel Prize winners and provides taxpayer-funded education for students from all around the globe.[113][114][115] Buenos Aires is a major center for psychoanalysis, particularly the Lacanian school. Buenos Aires is home to several private universities of different quality, such as: Universidad Argentina de la Empresa, Buenos Aires Institute of Technology, CEMA University, Favaloro University, Pontifical Catholic University of Argentina, University of Belgrano, University of Palermo, University of Salvador, Universidad Abierta Interamericana, Universidad John F. Kennedy, Universidad de Ciencias Empresariales y Sociales, Universidad del Museo Social Argentino, Universidad Austral and Torcuato di Tella University. Tourism[edit] Main article: Tourism in Buenos Aires Buenos Aires Bus, the city's touristic bus service. The official estimate is that the bus carries between 700 and 800 passengers per day, and has carried half a million passengers since its opening.[116] According to the World Travel & Tourism Council,[117] tourism has been growing in the Argentine capital since 2002. In a survey by the travel and tourism publication Travel + Leisure Magazine in 2008, travellers voted Buenos Aires the second most desirable city to visit after Florence, Italy.[118] In 2008, an estimated 2.5 million visitors visited the city.[119] Visitors have many options such as going to a tango show, an estancia in the Province of Buenos Aires, or enjoying the traditional asado. New tourist circuits have recently evolved, devoted to famous Argentines such as Carlos Gardel, Eva Perón or Jorge Luis Borges. Before 2011, due to the favourable exchange rate, its shopping centres such as Alto Palermo, Paseo Alcorta, Patio Bullrich, Abasto de Buenos Aires and Galerías Pacífico were frequently visited by tourists. The exchange rate today has hampered tourism and shopping in particular. Notable consumer brands such as Tiffany & Co. have abandoned the country due to the exchange rate and import restrictions. The city also plays host to musical festivals, some of the largest of which are Quilmes Rock, Creamfields BA, Ultra Music Festival (Buenos Aires) and the Buenos Aires Jazz Festival. Notable streets[edit] Avenida 9 de Julio before being renovated to allow more buses. Alvear Avenue passes through the upscale Recoleta area, and is the address for five-star hotels and embassies, many of them former mansions. Caminito colorfully restored by local artist Benito Quinquela Martín Corrientes Avenue a principal thoroughfare in Buenos Aires, and intimately tied to the Tango and Porteño culture Liberator Avenue connects downtown to upscale areas in the northwest, passing by many of the city's best-known museums, gardens and cultural points of interest May Avenue is often compared with those of Madrid, Barcelona and Paris

for its sophisticated buildings of Art Nouveau, Neoclassic and eclectic styles Florida Street a downtown pedestrian street Avenida 9 de Julio the widest avenue in the world; its name honors Argentina's Independence Day Neighborhoods[edit] Caminito, La Boca Belgrano (tipa-lined residential streets, Tudor architecture and numerous museums) La Boca (the old port district still maintains its 19th-century ambience) Palermo (a trendy neighborhood filled with restaurants, shops and clubs called boliches) Parque Patricios (technology district) Puerto Madero (these 1880-era docklands are now the city's newest neighborhood with a modern skyline and upscale restaurants) Recoleta (the traditionally upscale district combines Parisian architecture with trendy highrises and a variety of cultural venues) Retiro (Art Nouveau cafés and restaurants among Art Deco office architecture) San Telmo (one of the oldest neighborhoods of Buenos Aires, this area is characterized by well-preserved 19th-century architecture) Parks[edit] Palermo Woods Parque Tres de Febrero (this park, one of the city's largest, is home to a rose garden and paddleboat lake) Botanical Gardens (among the oldest in Latin America and an easy walk to other Palermo-area sights) Buenos Aires Japanese Gardens (the largest of its type in the World, outside Japan)[120] Plaza de Mayo (surrounded by national and city government offices, this square has been central to many of Argentina's historical events) Plaza San Martín (central to the Retiro area, the leafy park is surrounded by architectural landmarks) Recoleta Cemetery (includes graves of many of Argentina's historical figures, including Eva Perón, several presidents and scientists, as well many among Argentina's influential families) Buenos Aires Zoo (renowned for its collection and the Hindu Revival elephant house) Landmarks[edit] Main article: Landmarks in Buenos Aires Buenos Aires City Legislature Cabildo (seat of government house during colonial times) Caminito (renowned for Benito Quinquela Martín's pastel hues and wall reliefs) Casa Rosada (the official seat of the executive branch of the Argentine government) Central Post Office (soon to be reopened as the Bicentennial Cultural Center) City Legislature (the monumental neoclassical building also houses two libraries and a museum) Kavanagh building (the Art Deco residential building was the first true skyscraper in Buenos Aires) Metropolitan Cathedral (mother church of the Archdiocese of Buenos Aires) National Congress (Argentine Parliament) National Library (the largest library in Argentina and one of the most important in the Americas) National Museum of History (original documents, former presidents' belongings and recreated historical rooms) The Obelisk (one of the city's iconic landmarks and a venue for various cultural activities and other events) Teatro Colón (an internationally renowned opera house opened in 1908) The Water Company Palace (perhaps the world's most ornate water pumping station) Shopping centers[edit] Abasto de Buenos Aires Galerías Pacífico Patio Bullrich Galería Güemes Alto Palermo Theatre[edit] Teatro Colón Cervantes Theatre Teatro Gran Rex Avenida Theatre Teatro General San Martín Teatro Nacional Teatro Opera Teatro Coliseo Coffee shops[edit] Café Tortoni Confitería El Molino Libraries[edit] Pizzurno Palace Transport[edit] Local roads and personal transport[edit] The General Paz Avenue separates Buenos Aires from Greater Buenos Aires Buenos Aires is based on a square, rectangular grid pattern, save for natural barriers or the relatively rare developments explicitly designed otherwise (notably, the neighbourhood of Parque Chas). The rectangular grid provides for square blocks named manzanas, with a length of roughly 110 meters. Pedestrian zones in the city centre, like Florida Street are partially car-free and always bustling, access provided by bus and the Underground (subte) Line C. Buenos Aires, for the most part, is a very walkable city and the majority of residents in Buenos Aires use public transport. Two diagonal avenues in the city centre alleviate traffic and provide better access to Plaza de Mayo. Most avenues running into and out of the city centre are one-way and feature six or more lanes, with computer-controlled green waves to speed up traffic outside of peak times. The city's principal avenues include the 140-metre (459 ft)-wide July 9 Avenue, the over-35 km (22 mi)-long Rivadavia Avenue,[121] and Corrientes Avenue, the main thoroughfare of culture and entertainment. In the 1940s and 1950s the General Paz Avenue beltway that surrounds the city along its border with Buenos Aires Province and freeways leading to the new international airport and to the northern suburbs heralded a new era in Buenos Aires traffic. Encouraged by pro-automaker policies pursued towards the end of the Perón (1955) and Frondizi administrations (1958–62) in particular, auto sales nationally grew from an average of 30,000 during the 1920–57 era to around 250,000 in the 1970s and over 600,000 in 2008.[122] Today, over 1.8 million vehicles (nearly one-fifth of Argentina's total) are registered in Buenos Aires.[123] Toll motorways opened in the late 1970s by then-mayor Osvaldo Cacciatore provided fast access to the city centre and are today used by over a million vehicles daily.[124] Cacciatore likewise had financial district streets (roughly one square kilometre in area) closed to private cars during daytime. Most major avenues are, however, gridlocked at peak hours. Following the economic mini-boom of the 1990s, record numbers started commuting by car and congestion increased, as did the time-honored Argentine custom of taking weekends off in the countryside. Cycling[edit] Main article: EcoBici (Buenos Aires) In December 2010, the city government launched a bicycle sharing program with bicycles free for hire upon registration. Located in mostly central areas, there are 31 rental stations throughout the city providing over 850 bicycles to be picked up and dropped off at any station within an hour.[125] As of 2013, the city has constructed 110 km (68.35 mi) of protected bicycle lanes and has plans to construct another 100 km (62.14 mi).[126] In 2015, the stations were automated and the service became 24 hours through use of a smart card or mobile phone application. Local public transport[edit] Commuter rail[edit] See also: Rail transport in Argentina A Mitre Line Trenes Argentinos train in Palermo. Digramatical map of the commuter rail network and Buenos Aires Underground in 2015 The Buenos Aires commuter rail system has seven lines: Belgrano Norte Line Belgrano Sur Line Roca Line San Martín Line Sarmiento Line Mitre Line Urquiza Line The Buenos Aires commuter network system is very extensive: every day more than 1.3 million people commute to the Argentine capital. These suburban trains operate between 4 am and 1 am. The Buenos Aires commuter rail network also connects the city with long-distance rail services to Rosario and Córdoba, among other metropolitan areas. There are four principal terminals for both long-distance and local passenger services in the city centre: Constitucion, Retiro, Federico Lacroze and Once, while Buenos Aires station is a minor terminus. Commuter rail in the city is mostly operated by the state-owned Trenes Argentinos, though the Urquiza Line and Belgrano Norte Line are operated by private companies Metrovías and Ferrovías respectively.[127][128][129] All services had been operated by Ferrocarriles Argentinos until the company's privatisation in 1993, and were then operated by a series of private companies until the lines were put back under state control following a series of high profile accidents.[130][131] Since 2013, there has been a series of large investments on the network, with all lines (with the exception of the Urquiza Line) receiving new rolling stock, along with widespread infrastructure improvements, track replacement, electrification work, refurbishments of stations and building entirely new stations.[132][133][134] Similarly, almost all level crossings have been replaced by underpasses and overpasses in the city, with plans to replace all of them in the near future.[135] One of the most major projects under way is the electrification of the remaining segments of the Roca Line - the most widely-used in the network - and also moving the entire section of the Sarmiento Line which runs through the centre of the city underground to allow for better frequencies on the line and reduce congestion above ground.[136][137] There are also three other three other major projects on the table. The first would elevate a large segment of the San Martín Line which runs through the centre of the city and electrify the line, while the second would see the electrification and extension of the Belgrano Sur Line to Constitucion station in the centre of the city.[138][139] If these two projects are completed, then the Belgrano Norte Line would be the only diesel line to run through the city. The third and most ambitious is to build a series of underground tunnels between three of the city's railway terminals with a large underground central station underneath the Obelisk, connecting all the commuter railway lines in a network dubbed the Red de Expresos Regionales.[140] Underground[edit] Main article: Buenos Aires Underground Buenos Aires Underground entrance on May Avenue Echeverría station on Line B The Buenos Aires Underground (locally known as subte, from "subterráneo" meaning underground or subway), is a high-yield system providing access to various parts of the city. Opened in 1913, it is the oldest underground system in the Southern Hemisphere and oldest in the Spanish-speaking world. The system has six underground lines and one overground line, named by letters (A to E, and H) and there are 100 stations, and 58.8 km (37 mi) of route, including the Premetro line.[141] An expansion program is underway to extend existing lines into the outer neighborhoods and add a new north-south line. Route length is expected to reach 89 km (55 mi) by 2011. Line A is the oldest one (service opened to public in 1913) and stations kept the "belle-époque" decoration, while the original rolling stock from 1913, affectionately known as Las Brujas were retired from the line in 2013. Daily ridership on weekdays is 1.7 million and on the increase.[142][143] Fares remain relatively cheap, although the city government raised fares by over 125% in January 2012. A single journey, with unlimited interchanges between lines, now costs AR$3.50, which is roughly USD$0.60.[144] The most recent expansions to the network were the addition of numerous stations to the network in 2013: San José de Flores and San Pedrito to Line A, Echeverría and Juan Manuel de Rosas to Line B and Hospitales to Line H. Current works include the completion of Line H northwards and addition of three new stations to Line E in the centre of the city.[145][146] The construction of Line F is due to commence in 2015,[147] while two other lines are planned for construction in the future. Tramways[edit] Main article: Trams in Buenos Aires Buenos Aires had an extensive street railway (tram) system with over 857 km (533 mi) of track, which was dismantled during the 1960s in favour of bus transportation, but surface rail transport has made a small comeback in some parts of the city. The PreMetro or Line E2 is a 7.4 km (4.6 mi) light rail line that connects with Underground Line E at Plaza de los Virreyes station and runs to General Savio and Centro Cívico. It is operated by Metrovías. The official inauguration took place on 27 August 1987. A 2 km (1.2 mi) modern tramway, the Tranvía del Este, opened in 2007 in the Puerto Madero district, using two tramcars on temporary loan. However, plans to extend the line and acquire a fleet of trams did not come to fruition, and declining patronage led to the line's closure in October 2012.[148] A heritage streetcar maintained by tram fans operates on weekends, near the Primera Junta line A Underground station in the Caballito neighbourhood. Buses[edit] Metrobus, 9 de Julio Line. There are over 150 city bus lines called Colectivos, each one managed by an individual company. These compete with each other, and attract exceptionally high use with virtually no public financial support.[149] Their frequency makes them equal to the underground systems of other cities, but buses cover a far wider area than the underground system. Colectivos in Buenos Aires do not have a fixed timetable, but run from four to several per hour, depending on the bus line and time of the day. With inexpensive tickets and extensive routes, usually no further than four blocks from commuters' residences, the colectivo is the most popular mode of transport around the city.[149] Buenos Aires has recently opened a bus rapid transit system, the Metrobus. The system uses modular median stations that serve both directions of travel, which enable pre-paid, multiple-door, level boarding. The first line, opened on 31 May 2011, runs across the Juan B. Justo Ave has 21 stations.[150] The system now has 4 lines with 113 stations on its 43.5 km (27.0 mi) network, while numerous other lines are under construction and planned.[151] Taxis[edit] Buquebus high-speed ferries connect Buenos Aires to Uruguay A fleet of 40,000 black-and-yellow taxis ply the streets at all hours. License controls are not enforced rigorously.[citation needed] There have been reports of organized crime controlling the access of taxis to the city airports and other major destinations.[citation needed] Taxi drivers are known for trying to take advantage of tourists.[152] Radio-link companies provide reliable and safe service; many such companies provide incentives for frequent users. Low-fare limo services, known as remises, have become popular in recent years.[153][154] Intercity transport[edit] Pistarini International Airport terminal Ferries[edit] Buenos Aires is also served by a ferry system operated by the company Buquebus that connects the port of Buenos Aires with the main cities of Uruguay, (Colonia del Sacramento, Montevideo and Punta del Este). More than 2.2 million people per year travel between Argentina and Uruguay with Buquebus. One of these ships is a catamaran, which can reach a top speed of about 80 km/h (50 mph).[155] Airports[edit] The Buenos Aires international airport, which goes by the official name of Ministro Pistarini International Airport, is located in the suburb of Ezeiza and is often called the "Ezeiza International Airport". The Aeroparque Jorge Newbery airport, located in the Palermo district next to the riverbank, serves only domestic traffic and flights to Brazil, Chile, Paraguay and Uruguay. A smaller San Fernando Airport serves only general aviation. Security[edit] Metropolitan Police of Buenos Aires City. The Guardia Urbana de Buenos Aires (Buenos Aires Urban Guard) was a specialized civilian force of the city of Buenos Aires, Argentina, that used to deal with different urban conflicts with the objective of develop actions of prevention, dissuasion and mediation, promoting effective behaviors that guarantee the security and the integrity of public order and social coexistence. The unit continuously assisted the personnel of the Argentine Federal Police, especially in emergency situations, events of massive concurrence, and protection of tourist establishments. The group permanently did controls of seat belt use, blood alcohol content tests, and traffic order; also its agents are enabled to offer quick and objective information to tourists and foreign people. Other functions include take part when a public case of intentional damage or negligence happen; anyway, its personnel always must act in a preventive, educative, dissuasive and coordinated form. The Urban Guard officials did not carry any weapon in the performing of their duties. Their basic tools are an HT radio transmissor and a whistle. As of March 2008, the Guardia Urbana was removed. Its people were "recycled" into a new law enforcement organization, about traffic order called the Seguridad Vial. The Buenos Aires Metropolitan Police is the police force under the authority of the Autonomous City (or Federal District) of Buenos Aires. The force was created in 2010 and is composed of 1,850 officers, and is planned to expand to 16,000. Security in the city is concurrently the responsibility of the Metropolitan Police and the Argentine Federal Police. The city government claims the new force is based on the model of the British London Metropolitan Police and the New York Police Department. The force was intended to use high technology support and adopt a policy of zero tolerance. The police are headed by a Chief and a Deputy Chief. Both are appointed by the head of the executive branch of the City. There are four major departments, each headed by a Director General: Public Security Investigations and Research Scientific and Technical Administration Geographically, the force is divided into 15 precincts. Of the 1,850 officers, 900 are used for patrolling the streets. Sports[edit] Football is a passion for Argentines. Buenos Aires has the highest concentration of football teams of any city in the world (featuring no fewer than 24 professional football teams),[156] with many of its teams playing in the major league. The best-known rivalry is the one between River Plate and Boca Juniors. Watching a match between these two teams was deemed one of the "50 sporting things you must do before you die" by The Observer.[156] Other major clubs include San Lorenzo de Almagro, Club Atlético Huracán, Vélez Sársfield, Asociación Atlética Argentinos Juniors and Club Ferro Carril Oeste. Diego Maradona, born in Lanús Partido (county) south of Buenos Aires, is widely hailed as one of the greatest football players of all time. Maradona started his career with Argentinos Juniors, later playing for Boca Juniors, the Argentina national football team and others (most notably FC Barcelona in Spain and SSC Napoli in Italy).[157] Argentina has been the home of world champions in professional boxing. Carlos Monzon was a hall of fame World Middleweight champion, and the current undisputed linear Middleweight champion Sergio Martinez hails from Argentina. Omar Narvaez, Lucas Matthysse, Carolina Duer, and Marcos Maidana are five modern-day world champions as well. Luna Park Campo Argentino de Polo, home of the Argentine Open Polo Championship, the most important global event of this discipline Buenos Aires Lawn Tennis Club Buenos Aires has been a candidate city for the Summer Olympic Games on three occasions: for the 1956 Games, which were lost by a single vote to Melbourne; for the 1968 Summer Olympics, held in Mexico City; and in 2004, when the games were awarded to Athens. However, Buenos Aires hosted the first Pan American Games (1951)[91] and was also host city to several World Championship events: the 1950 and 1990 Basketball World Championships, the 1982 and 2002 Men's Volleyball World Championships and, most remembered, the 1978 FIFA World Cup, won by Argentina on 25 June 1978, when it defeated the Netherlands at the Estadio Monumental 3–1. In September 2013, the city hosted the 125th IOC Session, Tokyo was elected the host city of the 2020 Summer Olympics and Thomas Bach was new IOC President. Buenos Aires bid to host the 2018 Summer Youth Olympics.[158] On 4 July 2013, the IOC elected Buenos Aires as the host city.[16] Buenos Aires hosted the 2006 South American Games too. Juan Manuel Fangio won five Formula One World Driver's Championships, and was only outstripped by Michael Schumacher, with seven Championships. The Buenos Aires Oscar Gálvez car-racing track hosted 20 Formula One events as the Argentine Grand Prix, between 1953 and 1998; it was discontinued on financial grounds. The track features various local categories on most weekends. The 2009, 2010, 2011, 2015 Dakar Rally started and ended in the city. Argentines' love for horses can be experienced in several ways: horse racing at the Hipódromo Argentino de Palermo racetrack, polo in the Campo Argentino de Polo (located just across Libertador Avenue from the Hipódromo), and pato, a kind of basketball played on horseback that was declared the national game in 1953. Buenos Aires native Guillermo Vilas (who was raised in Mar del Plata) and Gabriela Sabatini were great tennis players of the 1970s and 1980s [91] and popularized tennis Nationwide in Argentina. Vilas won the ATP Buenos Aires numerous times in the 1970s. Other popular sports in Buenos Aires are golf, basketball, rugby and field hockey. The Estadio Monumental Antonio Vespucio Liberti is one of the most important Olympic stadiums on the continent. Known as "El Monumental", it hosted the final game of the FIFA World Cup Championship in 1978. Notable people[edit] Notable people originally from Buenos Aires: Writer, Jorge Luis Borges Argentine NASA astronaut, Fernando Caldeiro First Pope from the 'New World', Francis Queen Máxima of the Netherlands Luis Scola, basketball player Gustavo Cerati, singer-songwriter, composer and producer International relations[edit] World rankings[edit] Buenos Aires is classified as an Alpha World City, according to the Loughborough University group's (GaWC) 2008 inventory.[159] It is ranked 22nd in the 2010 ranking of global cities by the American journal Foreign Policy, in conjunction with consulting firm A.T. Kearney and the Chicago Council on Global Affairs. (See "Global city" for the top 30 in the list). Twin towns and sister cities[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2015) See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in Argentina Buenos Aires is twinned with the following cities:[citation needed] Armenia Yerevan, Armenia (since 2000)[160] Brazil Brasília, Brazil (since 2002)[citation needed] Brazil São Paulo, Brazil[161][162] China Beijing, China (since 1993)[163] Croatia Zagreb, Croatia (since 1998)[164] Czech Republic Prague, Czech Republic[citation needed] Egypt Cairo, Egypt[165][citation needed] Germany Berlin, Germany (since 19 May 1994)[166][167] Israel Tel Aviv, Israel (since 1976)[citation needed] Italy Calabria, Italy (region)[citation needed] Italy Naples, Italy[citation needed] Japan Osaka, Japan[citation needed] Poland Warsaw, Poland[165][dead link][citation needed] Russia Moscow, Russia[165][dead link][citation needed] Spain Bilbao, Spain[citation needed] Spain Cádiz, Spain[citation needed] Spain Guadix, Spain[165][dead link][citation needed] Spain Oviedo, Spain (since 1983)[citation needed] Spain Salamanca, Spain[citation needed] Spain Santiago de Compostela, Spain[citation needed] Spain Seville, Spain[168] The following outline is provided as an overview of, and introduction to Argentina: Argentina – country in South America, the continent's second largest by land area, after Brazil. It is constituted as a federation of 23 provinces and an autonomous city, Buenos Aires. It is the eighth-largest country in the world by land area and the largest among Spanish-speaking nations. Contents [hide] 1 General reference 2 Geography of Argentina 3 Government and politics of Argentina 4 History of Argentina 5 Culture of Argentina 6 Economy and infrastructure of Argentina 7 Education in Argentina 8 See also 9 Reference s 1 0 E x t e r n a l l i n k s G e n e r a l r e f e r e n c e [ e d i t ] A n e n l a r g e a b l e b a s i c m a p o f A r g e n t i n a P r o n u n c i a t i o n : L i s t e n i / Ì Q r d ’ Y n È t i Ð n Y / C o m m o n E n g l i s h c o u n t r y n a m e : A r g e n t i n a O f f i c i a l E n g l i s h c o u n t r y n a m e : T h e A r g e n t i n e R e p u b l i c C o m m o n e n d o n y m ( s ) : A r g e n t i n a O f f i c i a l e n d onym(s): República Argentina Adjectival(s): Argentine Demonym(s): Etymology: Name of Argentina International rankings of Argentina ISO country codes: AR, ARG, 032 ISO region codes: See ISO 3166-2:AR Internet country code top-level domain: .ar Geography of Argentina[edit] An enlargeable topographic map of Argentina. Main article: Geography of Argentina Argentina is a: Country Location: Southern Hemisphere Western Hemisphere Latin America South America Southern Cone Time zone: Argentina Time - (UTC-03) - No D S T E x t r e m e p o i n t s o f A r g e n t i n a H i g h : A c o n c a g u a 6 , 9 6 0 m ( 2 2 , 8 3 5 f t ) h i g h e s t p o i n t o u t s i d e o f A s i a L o w : L a g u n a d e l C a r b ó n "1 0 5 m ( "3 4 4 f t ) l o w e s t p o i n t i n t h e W e s t e r n H e m i s p h e r e a n d t h e S o u t h e r n H e m i s p h e r e L a n d b o u n d a r i e s : 9 , 8 6 1 k m C h i l e 5 , 3 0 8 k m P a r a guay 1,880 km Brazil 1,261 km Bolivia 832 km Uruguay 580 km Coastline: 4,989 km Population of Argentina: 40,677,348 people (2008 estimate) - 30th most populous country Area of Argentina: 2,766,890 km2 (1,068,300 sq mi) - 8th largest country Atlas of Argentina Environment of Argentina[edit] An enlargeable satellite image of the Argentina Main article: Environment of Argentina Climate of Argentina Renewable energy in Argentina Geology of Argentina Earthquakes in Argentina Protected areas of Argentina Biosphere reserves in Argentina National parks of Argentina Wildlife of Argentina Flora of Argentina Fauna of Argentina Birds of Argentina Mammals of Argentina Natural geographic features of Argentina[edit] Fjords of Argentina Glaciers of Argentina Islands of Argentina Lakes of Argentina Mountains of Argentina Volcanoes in Argentina Rivers of Argentina Waterfalls of Argentina Valleys of Argentina World Heritage Sites in Argentina Regions of Argentina[edit] Main article: Regions of Argentina The provinces of Argentina are often grouped into six geographical regions. From North to South and West to East, these are: Argentine Northwest: Jujuy, Salta, Tucumán, Catamarca, La Rioja Gran Chaco: Formosa, Chaco, Santiago del Estero Mesopotamia (or Littoral): Misiones, Entre Ríos, Corrientes Cuyo: San Juan, Mendoza, San Luis Pampas: Córdoba, Santa Fe, La Pampa, Buenos Aires Patagonia: Rio Negro, Neuquén, Chubut, Santa Cruz, Tierra del Fuego Argentine Antarctica Administrative divisions of Argentina[edit] Provinces[edit] Main article: Provinces of Argentina Autonomous City of Buenos Airesa Buenos Aires Province Catamarca Chaco Chubut Córdoba Corrientes Entre Ríos Formosa Jujuy La Pampa La Rioja Mendoza Misiones Neuquén Río Negrob Salta San Juan San Luis Santa Cruz Santa Fe Santiago del Estero Tierra del Fuego, Antártida e Islas del Atlántico Surc Tucumán a Not a Province. Autonomous City and seat of National Government. (Also known as Buenos Aires City). b or Provincia del Río Negro. c Tierra del Fuego Province includes claims over Argentine Antarctica, Falkland Islands, and South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands. Provinces of Argentina. Click to explore. About this image Municipalities of Argentina[edit] Buenos Aires, Argentina Main article: Municipalities of Argentina Cities of Argentina Capital of Argentina: Buenos Aires Demography of Argentina[edit] Main article: Demographics of Argentina, Ethnography of Argentina Government and politics of Argentina[edit] Main article: Government of Argentina and Politics of Argentina Form of government: federal presidential representative democratic republic Capital of Argentina: Buenos Aires Elections in Argentina Primary elections in Argentina Political parties in Argentina Taxation in Argentina Branches of the government of Argentina[edit] Main article: Government of Argentina Executive branch of the government of Argentina[edit] The Casa Rosada, seat of the Argentine Executive Branch of Government Head of state and government: President of Argentina, Cristina Fernández de Kirchner Cabinet of Argentina Chief of the Cabinet of Ministers Minister of the Interior Minister of Foreign Relations (mostly known as the Chancellor) Minister of Defense Minister of Economy Minister of Justice and Human Rights Minister of Security Minister of Labor, Employment and Social Security Minister of Education Minister of Science, Technology and Product Innovation Minister of Health Minister of Social Development Minister of Federal Planning, Public Infrastructure and Services Minister of Industry Minister of Agriculture Minister of Tourism Legislative branch of the government of Argentina[edit] The Argentine Congress and one of the few surviving original casts of Auguste Rodin's The Thinker. The Argentine Supreme Court Argentine National Congress (Congreso Nacional) (bicameral) Upper house: Argentine Senate (72 seats), presided by the Vice-President Argentine Chamber of Deputies (257 seats), currently presided by Eduardo Fellner of Jujuy Province). Judicial branch of the government of Argentina[edit] Main article: Court system of Argentina Supreme Court of Argentina President of the Supreme Court: Dr. Ricardo L. Lorenzetti Vice-President of the Supreme Court: Dra. Elena I. Highton de Nolasco Minister of the Court: Dr. Carlos S. Fayt Minister of the Court: Dr. Juan Carlos Maqueda Minister of the Court: Dr. Eugenio Raúl Zaffaroni Minister of the Court: Dr. Enrique S. Petracchi Minister of the Court: Dra. Carmen Argibay Foreign relations of Argentina[edit] Main article: Foreign relations of Argentina Diplomatic missions Diplomatic missions in Argentina Diplomatic missions of Argentina International organization membership[edit] The Argentine Republic is a member of:[1] African Development Bank Group (AfDB) (nonregional member) Agency for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean (OPANAL) Andean Community of Nations (CAN) (associate) Australia Group Bank for International Settlements (BIS) Central American Bank for Economic Integration (BCIE) Central American Integration System (SICA) (observer) Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Group of 15 (G15) Group of Twenty Finance Ministers and Central Bank Governors (G20) Group of 24 (G24) Group of 77 (G77) Inter-American Development Bank (IADB) International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) International Chamber of Commerce (ICC) International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) International Criminal Court (ICCt) International Criminal Police Organization (Interpol) International Development Association (IDA) International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRCS) International Finance Corporation (IFC) International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) International Labour Organization (ILO) International Maritime Organization (IMO) International Mobile Satellite Organization (IMSO) International Monetary Fund (IMF) International Olympic Committee (IOC) International Organization for Migration (IOM) International Organization for Standardization (ISO) International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement (ICRM) International Telecommunication Union (ITU) International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (ITSO) International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC) Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU) Latin American Economic System (LAES) Latin American Integration Association (LAIA) Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA) Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) Organization of American States (OAS) Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA) Rio Group (RG) Southern Cone Common Market (Mercosur) Unión Latina (observer) United Nations (UN) Union of South American Nations (UNASUR) United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara (MINURSO) United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP) United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH) United Nations Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO) Universal Postal Union (UPU) World Confederation of Labour (WCL) World Customs Organization (WCO) World Federation of Trade Unions (WFTU) World Health Organization (WHO) World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) World Meteorological Organization (WMO) World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) World Trade Organization (WTO) Zangger Committee (ZC) Law and order in Argentina[edit] Main article: Law of Argentina Constitution of Argentina Crime in Argentina Human rights in Argentina LGBT rights in Argentina Freedom of religion in Argentina Law enforcement in Argentina National law enforcement agencies Argentine Federal Police Argentine National Gendarmerie Argentine Naval Prefecture Airport Security Police Federal Penitentiary Service Regional law enforcement agencies Buenos Aires Provincial Police Santa Fe Province Police Córdoba Province Police Tucumán Province Police Salta Province Police Santiago del Estero Province Police San Juan Province Police Mendoza Province Police Río Negro Province Police San Luís Province Police La Rioja Province Police Santa Cruz Province Police Military of Argentina[edit] The Libertador Building, seat of the Argentine Defense Ministry Main article: Armed Forces of the Argentine Republic Command Commander-in-chief: President of Argentina, Cristina Fernández de Kirchner Ministry of Defense (Argentina) Forces Argentine Army Argentine Army Aviation Argentine Air Force Agrupación Aérea Presidencial Argentine Air Force Mobile Field Hospital Argentine Navy Argentine Naval Aviation Argentine Marines Military history of Argentina Military ranks of Argentina White Helmets History of Argentina[edit] Main article: History of Argentina History of Argentina, by period[edit] May Revolution History of Argentina, by region[edit] History of Buenos Aires Timeline of Buenos Aires history History of Argentina, by subject[edit] Economic history of Argentina Military history of Argentina Culture of Argentina[edit] Main article: Culture of Argentina Architecture of Argentina Cuisine of Argentina Festivals in Argentina Humor in Argentina Languages of Argentina Media in Argentina National symbols of Argentina Coat of arms of Argentina Flag of Argentina National anthem of Argentina People of Argentina Public holidays in Argentina Records of Argentina Religion in Argentina Buddhism in Argentina Christianity in Argentina Hinduism in Argentina Islam in Argentina Judaism in Argentina Sikhism in Argentina World Heritage Sites in Argentina Art in Argentina[edit] Art in Argentina Cinema of Argentina Literature of Argentina Music of Argentina Television in Argentina Theatre in Argentina Sports in Argentina[edit] Main article: Sports in Argentina Argentina at the Olympics Football in Argentina Economy and infrastructure of Argentina[edit] Main article: Economy of Argentina Economic rank, by nominal GDP (2007): 31st (thirty-first) Agriculture in Argentina Banking in Argentina National Bank of Argentina Education in Argentina The Argentina Education is considered one of the most advanced, world culture and progressive in Latin America along with Cuba and Uruguay, as well, is firmly recognized and highlighted by various international organizations, such as the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and the United Nations Fund for Children (UNICEF).[citation needed] Education in state institutions is free at the initial, primary, secondary and tertiary levels and in the undergraduate university level (not for graduate programs). Private education is paid, although in some cases (especially in primary and secondary schools) have state subsidies to support its costs. According to studies by UNESCO, education in Argentina and Uruguay guarantee equality to have institutional features that hinder the commercialization of education, as well as Finland has characteristics that favor multiethnic population education and special education, education favors Argentina equality. According to the last census, the illiteracy rate is 1.9%, the second lowest in Latin America. In the last decade, Argentina has created nine new universities, while the outflow of university students increased by 68%. Education is a responsibility shared by the national government, the provinces and federal district and private institutions, though basic guidelines have historically been set by the Ministry of Education. Closely associated in Argentina with President Domingo Sarmiento's assertion that "the sovereign should be educated" ("sovereign" referring to the people), education has been extended nearly universally and its maintenance remains central to political and cultural debate. Even though education at all levels, including universities, has always been free, there is a large number of private schools and universities. Contents [hide] 1 History 2 Achievements 3 Characteristics 3.1 Qualification Modes of Grading 3.2 Primary education 3.3 Secondary education 3.4 International education 3.5 Higher Education in Argentina 3.5.1 Funding 3.5.2 College education 3.5.3 Graduate School 4 Universities 4.1 Public universities 4.2 Private universities 5 See also 6 References 7 External links History[edit] President Domingo F. Sarmiento, father of the Argentine Education System. The education in Argentina known as the Latin American docta has had a convoluted history.[1] There was no effective education plan until President Domingo Sarmiento (1868–1874) placed emphasis on bringing Argentina up-to-date with practices in developed countries. Sarmiento encouraged the immigration and settling of European educators and built schools and public libraries throughout the country, in a programme that finally doubled the enrollment of students during his term; in Argentina, Teacher's Day (on September 11) commemorates his death. The first national laws mandating universal, compulsory, free and secular education (Law 1420 of Common Education) were sanctioned in 1884 during the administration of President Julio Roca. The non-religious character of this system, which forbade parochial schools from issuing official degrees directly but only through a public university, harmed the relations between the Argentine State and the Catholic Church, leading to resistance from the local clergy and Indonesia – Published in Indonesia since June 2005 by a&e Media. Italy – Published in Italy since 1980. After ceasing publication in 1982, it was relaunched in November 2003, first by IXO Publishing, and then by Editrice Quadratum until April 2014. The magazine is currently published by Luciano Bernardini de Pace Editore.[73] Japan – Launched in March 2007 by International Luxury Media Co., Ltd. (ILM). Published by atomixmedia Inc. (?????????????? KK atomikkusumedia?) During her grandfather's reign, Elizabeth was third in the line of succession to the throne, behind her uncle Edward, Prince of Wales, and her father, the Duke of York. Although her birth generated public interest, she was not expected to become queen, as the Prince of Wales was still young, and many assumed that he would marry and have children of his own.[15] When her grandfather died in 1936 and her uncle succeeded as Edward VIII, she became second-in-line to the throne, after her father. Later that year Edward abdicated, after his proposed marriage to divorced socialite Wallis Simpson provoked a constitutional crisis.[16] Consequently, Elizabeth's father became king, and she became heir presumptive. If her parents had had a later son, she would have lost her position as first-in-line, as her brother would have been heir apparent and above her in the line of succession.[17] Elizabeth received private tuition in constitutional history from Henry Marten, Vice-Provost of Eton College,[18] and learned French from a succession of native-speaking governesses.[19] A Girl Guides company, the 1st Buckingham Palace Company, was formed specifically so that she could socialise with girls her own age.[20] Later, she was enrolled as a Sea Ranger.[19] In 1939, Elizabeth's parents toured Canada and the United States. As in 1927, when her parents had toured Australia and New Zealand, Elizabeth remained in Britain, since her father thought her too young to undertake public tours.[21] Elizabeth "looked tearful" as her parents departed.[22] They corresponded regularly,[22] and she and her parents made the first royal transatlantic telephone call on 18 May.[21] Second World War In September 1939, Britain entered the Second World War, which lasted until 1945. During the war, many of London's children were evacuated to avoid the frequent aerial bombing. The suggestion by senior politician Lord Hailsham[23] that the two princesses should be evacuated to Canada was rejected by Elizabeth's mother, who declared, "The children won't go without me. I won't leave without the King. And the King will never leave."[24] Princesses Elizabeth and Margaret stayed at Balmoral Castle, Scotland, until Christmas 1939, when they moved to Sandringham House, Norfolk.[25] From February to May 1940, they lived at Royal Lodge, Windsor, until moving to Windsor Castle, where they lived for most of the next five years.[26] At Windsor, the princesses staged pantomimes at Christmas in aid of the Queen's Wool Fund, which bought yarn to knit into military garments.[27] In 1940, the 14-year-old Elizabeth made her first radio broadcast during the BBC's Children's Hour, addressing other children who had been evacuated from the cities.[28] She stated: We are trying to do all we can to help our gallant sailors, soldiers and airmen, and we are trying, too, to bear our share of the danger and sadness of war. We know, every one of us, that in the end all will be well.[28] Elizabeth in Auxiliary Territorial Service uniform, April 1945 Princess Elizabeth (left, in uniform) on the balcony of Buckingham Palace with (left to right) her mother Queen Elizabeth, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, King George VI, and Princess Margaret, 8 May 1945 In 1943, at the age of 16, Elizabeth undertook her first solo public appearance on a visit to the Grenadier Guards, of which she had been appointed colonel the previous year.[29] As she approached her 18th birthday, the law was changed so that she could act as one of five Counsellors of State in the event of her father's incapacity or absence abroad, such as his visit to Italy in July 1944.[30] In February 1945, she joined the Women's Auxiliary Territorial Service as an honorary second subaltern with the service number of 230873.[31] She trained as a driver and mechanic and was promoted to honorary junior commander five months later.[32][33] At the end of the war in Europe, on Victory in Europe Day, Princesses Elizabeth and Margaret mingled anonymously with the celebratory crowds in the streets of London. Elizabeth later said in a rare interview, "We asked my parents if we could go out and see for ourselves. I remember we were terrified of being recognised ... I remember lines of unknown people linking arms and walking down Whitehall, all of us just swept along on a tide of happiness and relief."[34] During the war, plans were drawn up to quell Welsh nationalism by affiliating Elizabeth more closely with Wales. Proposals, such as appointing her Constable of Caernarfon Castle or a patron of Urdd Gobaith Cymru (the Welsh League of Youth), were abandoned for various reasons, which included a fear of associating Elizabeth with conscientious objectors in the Urdd, at a time when Britain was at war.[35] Welsh politicians suggested that she be made Princess of Wales on her 18th birthday. The idea was supported by the Home Secretary, Herbert Morrison, but rejected by the King because he felt such a title belonged solely to the wife of a Prince of Wales and the Prince of Wales had always been the heir apparent.[36] In 1946, she was inducted into the Welsh Gorsedd of Bards at the National Eisteddfod of Wales.[37] In 1947, Princess Elizabeth went on her first overseas tour, accompanying her parents through southern Africa. During the tour, in a broadcast to the British Commonwealth on her 21st birthday, she made the following pledge: I declare before you all that my whole life, whether it be long or short, shall be devoted to your service and the service of our great imperial family to which we all belong.[38] Marriage and family Main article: Wedding of Princess Elizabeth and Philip Mountbatten, Duke of Edinburgh Elizabeth met her future husband, Prince Philip of Greece and Denmark, in 1934 and 1937.[39] They are second cousins once removed through King Christian IX of Denmark and third cousins through Queen Victoria. After another meeting at the Royal Naval College in Dartmouth in July 1939, Elizabeth—though only 13 years old—said she fell in love with Philip and they began to exchange letters.[40] Their engagement was officially announced on 9 July 1947.[41] The engagement was not without controversy: Philip had no financial standing, was foreign-born (though a British subject who had served in the Royal Navy throughout the Second World War), and had sisters who had married German noblemen with Nazi links.[42] Marion Crawford wrote, "Some of the King's advisors did not think him good enough for her. He was a prince without a home or kingdom. Some of the papers played long and loud tunes on the string of Philip's foreign origin."[43] Elizabeth's mother was reported, in later biographies, to have opposed the union initially, even dubbing Philip "The Hun".[44] In later life, however, she told biographer Tim Heald that Philip was "an English gentleman".[45] Before the marriage, Philip renounced his Greek and Danish titles, converted from Greek Orthodoxy to Anglicanism, and adopted the style Lieutenant Philip Mountbatten, taking the surname of his mother's British family.[46] Just before the wedding, he was created Duke of Edinburgh and granted the style His Royal Highness.[47] Elizabeth and Philip were married on 20 November 1947 at Westminster Abbey. They received 2500 wedding gifts from around the world.[48] Because Britain had not yet completely recovered from the devastation of the war, Elizabeth required ration coupons to buy the material for her gown, which was designed by Norman Hartnell.[49] In post-war Britain, it was not acceptable for the Duke of Edinburgh's German relations, including his three surviving sisters, to be invited to the wedding.[50] The Duke of Windsor, formerly King Edward VIII, was not invited either.[51] Elizabeth gave birth to her first child, Prince Charles, on 14 November 1948. One month earlier, the King had issued letters patent allowing her children to use the style and title of a royal prince or princess, to which they otherwise would not have been entitled as their father was no longer a royal prince.[52] A second child, Princess Anne, was born in 1950.[53] Following their wedding, the couple leased Windlesham Moor, near Windsor Castle, until 4 July 1949,[48] when they took up residence at Clarence House in London. At various times between 1949 and 1951, the Duke of Edinburgh was stationed in the British Crown Colony of Malta as a serving Royal Navy officer. He and Elizabeth lived intermittently, for several months at a time, in the hamlet of Gwardamanga, at Villa Guardamangia, the rented home of Philip's uncle, Lord Mountbatten. The children remained in Britain.[54] Reign Accession and coronation Elizabeth in crown and robes next to her husband in military uniform Coronation portrait of Queen Elizabeth II and the Duke of Edinburgh, June 1953 Coronation of Elizabeth II Main article: Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II During 1951, George VI's health declined and Elizabeth frequently stood in for him at public events. When she toured Canada and visited President Harry S. Truman in Washington, D.C., in October 1951, her private secretary, Martin Charteris, carried a draft accession declaration in case the King died while she was on tour.[55] In early 1952, Elizabeth and Philip set out for a tour of Australia and New Zealand by way of Kenya. On 6 February 1952, they had just returned to their Kenyan home, Sagana Lodge, after a night spent at Treetops Hotel, when word arrived of the death of the King and consequently Elizabeth's immediate accession to the throne. Philip broke the news to the new Queen.[56] Martin Charteris asked her to choose a regnal name; she chose to remain Elizabeth, "of course".[57] She was proclaimed queen throughout her realms and the royal party hastily returned to the United Kingdom.[58] She and the Duke of Edinburgh moved into Buckingham Palace.[59] With Elizabeth's accession, it seemed probable that the royal house would bear her husband's name, becoming the House of Mountbatten, in line with the custom of a wife taking her husband's surname on marriage. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and Elizabeth's grandmother, Queen Mary, favoured the retention of the House of Windsor, and so on 9 April 1952 Elizabeth issued a declaration that Windsor would continue to be the name of the royal house. The Duke complained, "I am the only man in the country not allowed to give his name to his own children."[60] In 1960, after the death of Queen Mary in 1953 and the resignation of Churchill in 1955, the surname Mountbatten-Windsor was adopted for Philip and Elizabeth's male-line descendants who do not carry royal titles.[61] Amid preparations for the coronation, Princess Margaret informed her sister that she wished to marry Peter Townsend, a divorcé‚ 16 years Margaret's senior, with two sons from his previous marriage. The Queen asked them to wait for a year; in the words of Martin Charteris, "the Queen was naturally sympathetic towards the Princess, but I think she thought—she hoped—given time, the affair would peter out."[62] Senior politicians were against the match and the Church of England did not permit remarriage after divorce. If Margaret had contracted a civil marriage, she would have been expected to renounce her right of succession.[63] Eventually, she decided to abandon her plans with Townsend.[64] In 1960, she married Antony Armstrong-Jones, who was created Earl of Snowdon the following year. They were divorced in 1978; she did not remarry.[65] Despite the death of Queen Mary on 24 March, the coronation on 2 June 1953 went ahead as planned, as Mary had asked before she died.[66] The ceremony in Westminster Abbey, with the exception of the anointing and communion, was televised for the first time.[67][d] Elizabeth's coronation gown was embroidered on her instructions with the floral emblems of Commonwealth countries:[71] English Tudor rose; Scots thistle; Welsh leek; Irish shamrock; Australian wattle; Canadian maple leaf; New Zealand silver fern; South African protea; lotus flowers for India and Ceylon; and Pakistan's wheat, cotton, and jute.[72] Continuing evolution of the Commonwealth Further information: Historical development of the Commonwealth realms, from the Queen's accession The Commonwealth realms (pink) and their territories and protectorates (red) at the beginning of Elizabeth II's reign A formal group of Elizabeth in tiara and evening dress with eleven politicians in evening dress or national costume. Elizabeth II and Commonwealth leaders at the 1960 Commonwealth Conference, Windsor Castle From Elizabeth's birth onwards, the British Empire continued its transformation into the Commonwealth of Nations.[73] By the time of her accession in 1952, her role as head of multiple independent states was already established.[74] Spanning 1953–54, the Queen and her husband embarked on a six-month around-the-world tour. She became the first reigning monarch of Australia and New Zealand to visit those nations.[75] During the tour, crowds were immense; three-quarters of the population of Australia were estimated to have seen her.[76] Throughout her reign, the Queen has undertaken state visits to foreign countries and tours of Commonwealth ones and she is the most widely travelled head of state.[77] In 1956, French Prime Minister Guy Mollet and British Prime Minister Sir Anthony Eden discussed the possibility of France joining the Commonwealth. The proposal was never accepted and the following year France signed the Treaty of Rome, which established the European Economic Community, the precursor of the European Union.[78] In November 1956, Britain and France invaded Egypt in an ultimately unsuccessful attempt to capture the Suez Canal. Lord Mountbatten claimed the Queen was opposed to the invasion, though Eden denied it. Eden resigned two months later.[79] The absence of a formal mechanism within the Conservative Party for choosing a leader meant that, following Eden's resignation, it fell to the Queen to decide whom to commission to form a government. Eden recommended that she consult Lord Salisbury, the Lord President of the Council. Lord Salisbury and Lord Kilmuir, the Lord Chancellor, consulted the British Cabinet, Winston Churchill, and the Chairman of the backbench 1922 Committee, resulting in the Queen appointing their recommended candidate: Harold Macmillan.[80] The Suez crisis and the choice of Eden's successor led in 1957 to the first major personal criticism of the Queen. In a magazine, which he owned and edited,[81] Lord Altrincham accused her of being "out of touch".[82] Altrincham was denounced by public figures and slapped by a member of the public appalled by his comments.[83] Aleksejs Širovs born – chess player Andris Škele born – politician Prime Minister of Latvia Armands Škele – basketball player Ksenia Solo born – actress Ernests Štalbergs – – architect ensemble of the Freedom Monument Izaks Nahmans Šteinbergs – – politician lawyer and author Maris Štrombergs – BMX cyclist gold medal winner at and Olympics T edit Esther Takeuchi born – materials scientist and chemical engineer Mihails Tals – – the th World Chess Champion Janis Roberts Tilbergs – – painter sculptor U edit Guntis Ulmanis born – president of Latvia Karlis Ulmanis – – prime minister and president of Latvia


abby-lane abby-rode abigail-clayton ada-tauler addie-juniper addison-cain adele-wiesenthal adeline-lange adeline-pollicina adriana-amante adrianna-laurenti adrianna-russo agnes agnes-ardant agnes-zalontai aimee-addison aisha-sun aja aleena-ferari alessandra-schiavo aletta-ocean alexandra-nice alexandria-cass alexa-parks alex-dane alex-foxe alexia-knight alexis-devell alexis-firestone alexis-greco alexis-payne alexis-x alex-storm alex-white aliana-love alice-springs alicia-alighatti alicia-monet alicia-rio alicyn-sterling alighiera-olena ali-moore aline-santos alissa-ashley allysin-chaynes alysin-embers alyssa-love alyssa-reece amanda-addams amanda-blake amanda-blue amanda-jane-adams amanda-rae amanda-stone amanda-tyler amber-hunt amberlina-lynn amber-lynn amber-michaels amber-peach amber-wild amber-woods ambrosia-fox amia-miley ami-rodgers amy-allison amy-brooke amy-rose amy-starz anastasia-christ anastasia-sands andrea-adams andrea-brittian andrea-lange andrea-true andy angel 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christine-black christine-chavert christine-neona christine-rigoler christy-canyon cicciolina cindi-stephens cindy-carver cindy-crawford cindy-more cindy-shepard cindy-wong cinthya-marinho clair-dia claire-robbins claude-janna claudia-jackson claudia-jamsson claudia-mehringer claudia-nero claudia-van-statt claudia-zante claudine-beccarie clea-carson cleo-nichole cleo-patra cody-lane cody-love cody-nicole coffee-brown colleen-brennan connie-bennett connie-peterson constance-money copper-penny coreena corey-everson corinne-lemoine corneliah cory-everson cory-wolf courtney courtney-cummz courtney-james cris-cassidy crissy-moran cris-taliana crystal-breeze crystal-dawn crystal-holland crystal-knight crystal-lake crystal-lovin crystal-sync csilla-kalnay cuban-bee cynara-fox cyndee-summers cynthia-black cynthia-brooks cynthia-hammers cynthia-lavigne dagmar-lost daisy-layne dallas-miko dana-dylan dana-lynn danica-rhea daniela-nanou daniela-schiffer daniele-troeger daniella daniella-schiffer 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elena-berkova elena-maria-ricci eleonore-melzer elisabeth-bure elis-black elise elise-di-medici elle-devyne elle-rio elodie-delage elsa-maroussia elza-brown emili-doll emily-evermoore emily-george emily-jewel emmanuelle-pareze envy-mi erica-boyer erica-eaton erica-havens erica-idol erica-lauren erika-bella erika-cool erika-heaven erika-lockett esme-monroe eva-allen eva-angel eva-dionisio eva-gross eva-kleber eva-lux eva-uettori eve-laurence evelyne-lang evie-delatosso fabiana-venturi faith-stevens fallon fanny-garreau fanny-steel faye-runaway flame flick-shagwell flore-soller flower france-lomay france-quenie francoise frankie-leigh gabriella gabriella-mirelba gabriella-vincze gail-force gail-palmer gail-sterling georgette-saunders georgia-peach georgina-spelvin gia-givanna gianna-lynn gili-sky gina-carrera gina-gianetti gina-janssen gina-lee gina-martell gina-valentino ginger-jay ginger-lee ginger-lynn ginny-noack giovanna gisela-schwarz giselle-monet gladys-laroche gloria-leonard gloria-todd golden-jade greta-carlson greta-milos guia-lauri-filzi gwenda-farnel hare-krane harley-raine hayley-jade hazel-young heather-deeley heather-ellis heather-hart heather-lere heather-lyn heather-manfield heather-thomas heather-torrance heather-wayne heather-young helen-madigan helen-thomas helga-sven helga-wild hillary-summers holly-hollywood holly-joy holly-page holly-ryder honey-winter hottie-hollie hyapatia-lee ida-fabry ildiko-smits illana-moor ines-ridere ingrid-choray isabella-dior isabella-soprano isabelle-allay isabelle-brell isabelle-marchall isobel-wren iveta ivette-blanche jackie-right jacqueline-lorians jacy-allen jada-stevens jade-east jade-hsu jade-marcela jade-summers jade-wong jahn-gold jamie-brooks jamie-james jamie-summers jana-irrova jana-mrazkova jane-baker jane-darling jane-iwanoff jane-lindsay jane-lixx janet-jacme janey-robbins jasmine-delatori jayden-simone jaylyn-rose jayna-woods jazella-moore jazmin-luna-gold jean-afrique jeanette-littledove jeanie-marie-sullivan jean-jennings jeanna-fine jeannie-pepper jenna-jameson jenna-jane jenna-presley jenna-wells jennifer-haussmann jennifer-janes jennifer-jordan jennifer-morante jennifer-noxt jennifer-stewart jennifer-welles jennifer-west jenny jenny-feeling jenny-fields jenny-wings jersey-jaxin jesie-st-james jesse-capelli jessica-bangkok jessica-bogart jessica-darlin jessica-fiorentino jessica-gabriel jessica-laine jessica-may jessica-road jessica-wylde jessi-foster jill-ferari jill-kelly joana-redgrave joan-devlon joanna-storm joanna-sweet jody-maxwell joelle-lequement joelle-petinot johnni-black jordana-james jordan-green jordan-nevaeh jordan-star josephine-carrington joslyn-james julia-chanel julia-dal-fuoco juliana-grandi julia-paes julia-parton julia-perrin julia-swen julia-thomas julie-meadows julie-rage julie-simone juliet-anderson juliet-graham juliette-carelton kacey-jordan kagney-linn-karter kaitlyn-ashley kalena-rios kami-andrews kamila-smith kandee-licks kandi-barbour kapri-styles kara-nox karen-summer kari-foxx karine-gambier karin-schubert karli-sweet karmen-kennedy karol-castro kascha kassi-nova kat kate-frost kate-jones kathia-nobili kathleen-gentry kathleen-white kathy-divan kathy-harcourt kathy-heart kathy-kash katie-cummings katja-love kat-langer katrina-isis katrina-kraven katy-borman katy-caro kaycee-dean kayla-kupcakes kay-parker k-c-valentine keama-kim keira-moon keisha keli-richards kelli-tyler kelly-adams kelly-blue kelly-broox kelly-hearn kelly-kay kelly-kline kelly-nichols kelly-royce kelly-skyline kendra-kay kenzi-marie keri-windsor ketthy-divan kianna-dior kiley-heart kim-alexis kimber-blake kimberly-carson kimberly-kane kimberly-kyle kim-de-place kim-holland kimi-gee kimkim-de kim-kitaine kimmie-lee kimmy-nipples kina-kara kira-eggers kira-red kirsty-waay kitty-langdon kitty-lynxxx kitty-marie kitty-shayne kitty-yung kora-cummings kris-lara krista-lane krista-maze kristara-barrington kristarah-knight kristi-klenot kristina-blonde kristina-king kristina-klevits kristina-soderszk kristine-heller kristin-steen krisztina-ventura krystal-de-boor krystal-steal kylee-karr kylee-nash kylie-brooks kylie-channel kylie-haze kylie-wylde kym-wilde kyoto-sun lachelle-marie lacy-rose lady-amanda-wyldefyre lady-stephanie laetitia-bisset lana-burner lana-cox lana-wood lara-amour lara-roxx lara-stevens lataya-roxx latoya laura-clair laura-lazare laura-lion laura-may laura-orsolya laura-paouck laura-zanzibar lauren-black laurence-boutin lauren-montgomery laurien-dominique laurien-wilde laurie-smith lauryl-canyon lauryn-may leah-wilde lea-magic lea-martini leanna-foxxx lee-caroll leigh-livingston leilani lenora-bruce leslie-winston lesllie-bovee letizia-bruni lexi-lane lexi-matthews lezley-zen lia-fire liliane-gray liliane-lemieuvre lili-marlene lily-gilder lily-labeau lily-rodgers lily-valentine linda-shaw linda-vale linda-wong linnea-quigley lisa-bright lisa-de-leeuw lisa-k-loring lisa-lake lisa-melendez lisa-sue-corey lise-pinson little-oral-annie liza-dwyer liza-harper lizzy-borden logan-labrent lois-ayres lola-cait long-jean-silver loni-bunny loni-sanders loona-luxx lorelei-lee lorelei-rand lorena-sanchez lori-alexia lori-blue lorrie-lovett luci-diamond lucie-doll lucie-theodorova lucy-van-dam lydia-baum lynn-franciss lynn-lemay lynn-ray lynn-stevens lynx-canon lysa-thatcher madelina-ray madison-parker magdalena-lynn maggie-randall mai-lin mandi-wine mandy-bright mandy-malone mandy-may mandy-mistery mandy-starr marcia-minor maren margit-ojetz margitta-hofer margo-stevens margot-mahler mariah-cherry marianne-aubert maria-tortuga marie-anne marie-christine-chireix marie-christine-veroda marie-claude-moreau marie-dominique-cabannes marie-france-morel marie-luise-lusewitz marie-sharp marilyn-chambers marilyne-leroy marilyn-gee marilyn-jess marilyn-martyn marilyn-star marina-hedman marion-webb marita-ekberg marita-kemper marlena marlene-willoughby marry-queen martine-grimaud martine-schultz maryanne-fisher mary-hubay mary-ramunno mary-stuart mascha-mouton maud-kennedy mauvais-denoir maxine-tyler maya-black maya-france megan-leigh megan-martinez megan-reece mei-ling melanie-hotlips melanie-scott melba-cruz melinda-russell melissa-bonsardo melissa-del-prado melissa-golden melissa-martinez melissa-melendez melissa-monet mercedes-dragon mercedes-lynn merle-michaels mesha-lynn mia-beck mia-lina mia-smiles michele-raven michelle-aston michelle-ferrari michelle-greco michelle-maren michelle-maylene michelle-monroe micki-lynn mika-barthel mika-tan mikki-taylor mimi-morgan mindy-rae ming-toy miranda-stevens miss-bunny miss-meadow miss-pomodoro missy missy-graham missy-stone missy-vega misti-jane mistress-candice misty-anderson misty-dawn misty-rain misty-regan mona-lisa mona-page moni monica-baal monica-swinn monika-peta monika-sandmayr monika-unco monique-bruno monique-cardin monique-charell monique-demoan monique-gabrielle monique-la-belle morgan-fairlane morrigan-hel moxxie-maddron mulani-rivera mysti-may nadege-arnaud nadia-styles nadine-bronx nadine-proutnal nadine-roussial nadi-phuket nanci-suiter nancy-hoffman nancy-vee natacha-delyro natalia-wood natalli-diangelo natascha-throat natasha-skyler naudia-nyce nessa-devil nessy-grant nesty nicki-hunter nicky-reed nicole-berg nicole-bernard nicole-black nicole-grey nicole-london nicole-parks nicole-scott nicole-taylor nicolette-fauludi nicole-west nika-blond nika-mamic niki-cole nikita-love nikita-rush nikki-charm nikki-grand nikki-king nikki-knight nikki-randall nikki-rhodes nikki-santana nikki-steele nikki-wilde niko nina-cherry nina-deponca nina-hartley nina-preta oana-efria obaya-roberts olesja-derevko olga-cabaeva olga-conti olga-pechova olga-petrova olivia-alize olivia-del-rio olivia-flores olivia-la-roche olivia-outre ophelia-tozzi orchidea-keresztes orsolya-blonde paige-turner paisley-hunter pamela-bocchi pamela-jennings pamela-mann pamela-stanford pamela-stealt pandora paola-albini pascale-vital pat-manning pat-rhea patricia-dale patricia-diamond patricia-kennedy patricia-rhomberg patrizia-predan patti-cakes patti-petite paula-brasile paula-harlow paula-morton paula-price paula-winters pauline-teutscher penelope-pumpkins penelope-valentin petra-hermanova petra-lamas peyton-lafferty phaedra-grant pia-snow piper-fawn pipi-anderson porsche-lynn porsha-carrera precious-silver priscillia-lenn purple-passion queeny-love rachel-ashley rachel-love rachel-luv rachel-roxxx rachel-ryan rachel-ryder racquel-darrian rane-revere raven reagan-maddux rebecca-bardoux regan-anthony regine-bardot regula-mertens reina-leone reka-gabor renae-cruz renee-foxx renee-lovins renee-morgan renee-perez renee-summers renee-tiffany rhonda-jo-petty rikki-blake riley-ray rio-mariah rita-ricardo roberta-gemma roberta-pedon robin-byrd robin-cannes robin-everett robin-sane rochell-starr rosa-lee-kimball rosemarie roxanne-blaze roxanne-hall roxanne-rollan ruby-richards sabina-k sabre sabrina-chimaera sabrina-dawn sabrina-jade sabrina-johnson sabrina-love-cox sabrina-mastrolorenzi sabrina-rose sabrina-scott sabrina-summers sacha-davril sahara sahara-sands sai-tai-tiger samantha-fox samantha-ryan samantha-sterlyng samantha-strong samueline-de-la-rosa sandra-cardinale sandra-de-marco sandra-kalermen sandra-russo sandy-lee sandy-pinney sandy-reed sandy-samuel sandy-style sandy-summers sara-brandy-canyon sara-faye sarah-bernard sarah-cabrera sarah-hevyn sarah-mills sarah-shine sara-sloane sasha sasha-hollander sasha-ligaya sasha-rose satine-phoenix satin-summer savannah-stern savanna-jane scarlet-scarleau scarlet-windsor seka selena serena serena-south severine-amoux shana-evans shanna-mccullough shannon-kelly shannon-rush shantell-day sharon-da-vale sharon-kane sharon-mitchell shaun-michelle shawna-sexton shawnee-cates shay-hendrix shayne-ryder sheena-horne sheer-delight shelby-star shelby-stevens shelly-berlin shelly-lyons sheri-st-clair sheyla-cats shonna-lynn shyla-foxxx shy-love sierra-sinn sierra-skye sigrun-theil silver-starr silvia-bella silvia-saint silvie-de-lux silvy-taylor simone-west sindee-coxx sindy-lange sindy-shy siobhan-hunter skylar-knight skylar-price skyler-dupree smokie-flame smoking-mary-jane solange-shannon sonya-summers sophia-santi sophie-call sophie-duflot sophie-evans sophie-guers stacey-donovan stacy-lords stacy-moran stacy-nichols stacy-silver stacy-thorn starla-fox starr-wood stefania-bruni stella-virgin stephanie-duvalle stephanie-rage stephanie-renee stevie-taylor summer-knight summer-rose sunny-day sunset-thomas sunshine-seiber susan-hart susanne-brend susan-nero susi-hotkiss suzanne-mcbain suzan-nielsen suzie-bartlett suzie-carina suzi-sparks sweet-nice sweety-pie sybille-rossani sylvia-benedict sylvia-bourdon sylvia-brand sylvia-engelmann syreeta-taylor syren-de-mer syvette szabina-black szilvia-lauren tai-ellis taija-rae taisa-banx talia-james tamara-lee tamara-longley tamara-n-joy tamara-west tami-white tammy tammy-lee tammy-reynolds tania-lorenzo tantala-ray tanya-danielle tanya-fox tanya-foxx tanya-lawson tanya-valis tara-aire tasha-voux tatjana-belousova tatjana-skomorokhova tawnee-lee tawny-pearl tayla-rox taylor-wane teddi-austin teddi-barrett tera-bond tera-heart tera-joy teresa-may teresa-orlowski teri-diver teri-weigel terri-dolan terri-hall tess-ferre tess-newheart thais-vieira tia-cherry tianna tiara tiffany-blake tiffany-clark tiffany-duponte tiffany-rayne tiffany-rousso tiffany-storm tiffany-towers tiffany-tyler tiger-lily tigr timea-vagvoelgyi tina-blair tina-burner tina-evil tina-gabriel tina-loren tina-marie tina-russell tish-ambrose tommi-rose tonisha-mills topsy-curvey tori-secrets tori-sinclair tori-welles tracey-adams traci-lords traci-topps traci-winn tracy-duzit tracy-love tracy-williams tricia-devereaux tricia-yen trinity-loren trisha-rey trista-post trixie-tyler ultramax ursula-gaussmann ursula-moore uschi-karnat valentina valerie-leveau valery-hilton vanessa-chase vanessa-del-rio vanessa-michaels vanessa-ozdanic vanilla-deville velvet-summers veri-knotty veronica-dol veronica-hart veronica-hill veronica-rayne veronica-sage veronika-vanoza via-paxton vicky-lindsay vicky-vicci victoria-evans victoria-gold victoria-knight victoria-luna victoria-paris victoria-slick victoria-zdrok viper virginie-caprice vivian-valentine vivien-martines wendi-white wendy-divine whitney-banks whitney-fears whitney-wonders wonder-tracey wow-nikki xanthia-berstein yasmine-fitzgerald yelena-shieffer yvonne-green zara-whites zsanett-egerhazi zuzie-boobies

a heated conflict with the Holy See (through the Papal Nuncio). Sarmiento Teachers' College: President Domingo Sarmiento established the first of these Escuelas Normales Following the university reform of 1918, Argentine education, especially at university level, became more independent of the government, as well as the influential Catholic Church. The church began to re-emerge in country's secular education system during the administration Juan Perón, when in 1947, catechism was reintroduced in public schools, and parochial institutions began again receiving subsidies. A sudden reversal in the policy in 1954 helped lead to Perón's violent overthrow, after which his earlier, pro-clerical policies were reinstated by General Pedro Aramburu. Aramburu's Law 6403 of 1955, which advanced private education generally, and parochial, or more often, Catholic-run schools (those staffed with lay teachers), in particular, helped lead to the establishment of the Argentine Catholic University.[2] The program of deregulation and privatization pursued by President Carlos Menem in reaction to the country's socio-economic crisis of 1989 led to the decentralization of the Argentine secondary school system, whereby, from 1992 onward, the schools' administration and funding became a provincial responsibility. The policy's weakness, however, lay in that federal revenue sharing did not increase accordingly, particularly given the decision to shift two primary school years to the secondary system.[3] Real government spending on education increased steadily from the return of democratic rule in 1983 (with the exception of the crises in 1989 and 2002) and, in 2007, totaled over US$14 billion.[4] Achievements[edit] In spite of its many problems, Argentina's higher education managed to reach worldwide levels of excellence in the 1960s. Up to 2013 Argentina educated five Nobel Prize winners, three in the sciences: Luis Federico Leloir, Bernardo Houssay and César Milstein and two in peace: Carlos Saavedra Lamas and Adolfo Pérez Esquivel, the highest number in Latin America surpassing countries economically more developed and populated as Ireland or Spain.[5][6][7] In addition, as of 2010, Argentines are the only Latin Americans to have ever been honoured with a Rolf Schock Prize.[8] The Argentine population at large benefits from a relatively high level of educational attainment, by regional standards. Among those age 20 and over, the highest level attained, per the 2010 Census, was distributed thus: No formal education Incomplete primary Complete primary Incomplete secondary Complete secondary Incomplete tertiary Complete tertiary % % % % % % % [9] Characteristics[edit] Education in Argentina has four levels and two different systems: initial level (kindergarten, educación inicial), primary level (educación primaria), secondary level (educación secundaria) and tertiary level (educación superior).[10] In Buenos Aires province, primary level is called educación primaria or EP (Spanish, "primary education") and comprises grades first to sixth (called years). Secondary level, called educación secundaria or ES, comprises grades first to sixth (also called years). EP and ES are divided in two stages, called ciclos ("cycles"): EP I: 1st, 2nd and 3rd school years EP II: 4th, 5th and 6th school years ES I: 1st, 2nd and 3rd school years ES II: 4th, 5th and 6th school years In the rest of the country EP comprises grades first to seventh (the traditional system, established by Argentine law 1420/1884). ES comprises grades first to fifth (the traditional system, in use throughout the 20th century). In both systems EP is mandatory to all students, as well as secondary education, according to the National Educational Law established in 2011. The fourth stage is tertiary education, which includes both college and university education. Education is funded by tax payers at all levels except for the majority of graduate studies. There are many private school institutions in the primary, secondary and university levels. Around 11.4 million people were enrolled in formal education of some kind in 2005: Level Schools Teachers 1 Students Initial 16,298 79,721 1,324,529 Primary 22,196 289,898 4,683,963 Secondary 22,080 133,225 3,372,411 Vocational 1,870 15,747 509,134 Universities 85 117,359 1,527,310 1 excludes 185,776 teachers not classified by level [11] Qualification Modes of Grading[edit] In the Latin American docta the scale to grade up the academic performance in students at the primary and secondary school rest in the 1-10 ladder as is described in the following frame. Evaluative Qualifications Rate/s Type 10 Outstanding, Excellent 9 and 8 Highly Satisfactory 7 and 6 Satisfactory 5 and 4 Unsatisfactory 3, 2, 1 Fail In the University System however the scale can vary depending on the independent policies and statutes of grading of each independent Argentine University. Primary education[edit] The ubiquitous white uniform of Argentine school children is a national symbol of learning. Secondary School in the pampas city of Bragado. Argentina's secondary schools belong to a provincial system. Accepted between ages 6 and 14. Primary education comprises the first EP cycles (grades 1–6). Because of the system that was in place during 1995-2007, most schools that offered 7 years of primary school prior to 1995 were forced to be converted and accept grades 8th and 9th, while others chose to eliminate 7th grade altogether, forcing students to complete the 3rd cycle in another institution. Secondary education[edit] Secondary education in Argentina comprises two levels. Years 1st to 3rd are common to all schools (Ciclo básico). Years 4th to 6th are organized in orientations (Ciclo orientado) such as Social Sciences, Natural Sciences, Arts, Sport, Design, etc. An additional year is offered in certain schools (Technical-Professional schools), which grants a professional title, also with orientations (agriculture, electricity, mechanics, construction). In many provinces the secondary education system is still divided in three traditional large groups, "Bachiller" schools (very similar to grammar schools with a huge emphasis on humanistic studies), "Comercial" schools (focusing on economic sciences and everything related to it) and "Escuelas Técnicas" (with a focus on technical and scientific assignments, this one having the particularity of lasting six years instead of five, it used to be called "Industrial") each one subdivided in more specific orientations related to its main branch. In December 2006 the Chamber of Deputies of the Argentine Congress approved a new National Education Law restoring the old system of primary followed by secondary education, making secondary education obligatory and a right, and increasing the length of compulsory education to 12 years. The transitional period ended in 2011. In addition an adult system of high schools (usually called Acelerados, Spanish for accelerated) exists in order to guarantee secondary education to people over 18. Normally it consists in 1 or 2 years of intensive program of study and it is provided by a large number of public and private schools varying on each province. Night shift is available in order to satisfy those who work during the day. These high school diplomas are accepted to enroll in a university. Argentina's network of vocational schools, many under the auspices of the National Technological University (UTN), have historically given students viable alternatives, as well. International education[edit] As of January 2015, the International Schools Consultancy (ISC)[12] listed Argentina as having 160 international schools.[13] ISC defines an 'international school' in the following terms "ISC includes an international school if the school delivers a curriculum to any combination of pre-school, primary or secondary students, wholly or partly in English outside an English-speaking country, or if a school in a country where English is one of the official languages, offers an English-medium curriculum other than the country’s national curriculum and is international in its orientation."[13] This definition is used by publications including The Economist.[14] Higher Education in Argentina[edit] See also: Academic ranks in Argentina Argentine higher education system is based, since its conception during the colonial period, on the old and dogmatic Spanish higher education system, which is basically a Continental education system (opposed to the Anglo-Saxon Model). A historic event took place in the Reforma Universitaria de 1918, a highly-popular series of reforms that took place in the oldest university of the Country, the Universidad de Córdoba that finally paved the way to the modernization of the Argentinian higher university systems as it is known nowadays. Since its foundation, it was focused on the teaching of Professions offering Professional degrees. It is divided in three levels . Tertiary Education level: 1- to 3-years degrees related to education or technical professions like Teachers, Professorship, Technicians. University level: 4- to 6-years Professional education taught at Universities offering many different degrees Licentiate, Engineering degree, Medic Title, Attorney Title, Professorships, Translation degrees, etc. Post-graduate level: This is a specialized and research-oriented education level. It is roughly divided in a first sub-level where a Specialist degree can be obtained in a 12–18 months period or Master degree, requiring 24–30 months and an original research work and a higher sub-level where a Doctorate degree could be achieved. Funding[edit] One important aspect is that Public universities at Tertiary Education level and at University level are tuition-free and open to anyone. Although it is not required to pay any kind of fee at universities, hidden costs of education, like transportation and materials, are often neglected and a lack of a well-developed and widespread scholarship system makes it hard for students from low-income families to enroll in public universities: for each eight students from the 20% upper-income class, there is only one student from the 20% lower-income class.[15] In contrast, post-graduate education requires some form of funding and it is generally not free. Additionally, financial pressure to freshman college students force them to join the work force before graduation, thus it is very common for young students to have full-time jobs and at the same time study at the University. This is considered beneficial because when the students graduate they already have working experience, though this could also be one of the causes of the high ratio of dropouts.[15][16] College education[edit] The University of Buenos Aires Law School. Argentina maintains a network of 39 National universities, financed by the Ministry of Education since 1946. Private and parochial universities are also abundant, numbering 46 among the active institutions and they enroll about a sixth of the collegiate student body (see University reform in Argentina and List of Argentine universities).[11] Summing up, over 1.5 million students attend institutions of higher learning in Argentina, annually (roughly half the population of college age).[17] Argentina does not have a standard and common system of examination after high school, thus admission to universities is strictly defined by each university. Moreover, a steady degradation in primary and secondary education created a huge difference between the required level to enter a university and the level achieved by the high school students. Some universities like University of Buenos Aires cope with this issue by creating a 1-year shared program called CBC that students need to complete in order to join the university.[18] Graduate School[edit] See also: Graduate education § Argentina The doctoral fields of study in Argentina are generally research-oriented doctoral studies, leading mostly to the awarding of the degrees of Doctor of Philosophy, Doctor of Science, Doctor of Medicine, and Doctor of Law, among others. Enrollment in doctorate programs in Argentina is available to candidates having earned a Licentiate, Professorships Engineer's degree or Master's degree in a related area of study.[19][20] Doctoral fields of study mostly pertain to one of five fields of knowledge: Applied Sciences, Basic Sciences, Health Sciences, Human Sciences and Social Sciences. The doctoral studies offered by the Argentine universities include multiple fields and do have national and international validity of the degrees granted.[21][22] Academic regulations governing doctorates, and their corresponding fields, in Argentina prescribe that all graduate courses must be accredited by the National Commission for University Evaluation and Accreditation. This entity stands as a public and decentralized body working under the jurisdiction of the Department of Education, Science and Technology. It administers the process of evaluation and accreditation for all doctorate programs, and is responsible for the institutional evaluation of all such programs at a national level.[23] Graduate programs, including the Doctorados (PhDs), set standards per guidelines set forth by the Ministry of Science and Technology,[24] together with the Universities Council. Additionally, external evaluations of the doctoral programs are carried out by the National Commission for University Evaluation and Accreditation, or private entities created to that effect, together with the participation of academic peers. Argentine institutions of higher education provide further accreditation by international establishments to many of their courses of studies.[25] Universities[edit] Main article: List of universities in Argentina Public universities[edit] Autonomus University of Entre Ríos University of Buenos Aires Nacional University Arturo Jauretche Nacional University of Avellaneda Nacional University of Catamarca Nacional University of Chilecito Nacional University of Córdoba Nacional University of Cuyo Nacional University of Entre Ríos Nacional University of Formosa National University of General San Martín National University of General Sarmiento National University of Jose C. Paz National University of Jujuy National University of La Matanza National University of La Pampa National University of Patagonia National University of Patagonia Austral National University of La Plata National University of La Rioja National University of Lanus National University of Lomas de Zamora National University of Lujan National University of Mar del Plata National University of Misiones National University of Moreno National University of Quilmes National University of Río Cuarto National University of Rio Negro National University of Rosario National University of Salta National University of San Juan National University of San Luis National University of Santiago del Estero National University of Tierra del Fuego, Antarctica and South Atlantic Islands National University of Tres de Febrero National University of Tucuman National University of Villa María National University of Villa Mercedes National University of Central Buenos Aires National University of Austral Chaco National University of Comahue National University of Litoral Northeastern University National University of Noroeste of Buenos Aires National University of the Oeste National University of the Sur National Technological University Private universities[edit] Main article: Private Universities of Argentina Technological Institute of Buenos Aires University Institute of Health Sciences - HA Barceló Foundation H. A. Barceló Foundation Open Interamerican University Adventist University of Plata Argentina University of the Company Universidad Argentina John F. Kennedy Atlantis Argentina University Austral University (Argentina) University Blas Pascal Caece University Catholic University Argentina Catholic University of Córdoba Catholic University of Cuyo Catholic University of La Plata Catholic University of Parana Catholic University of Salta Catholic University of Santa Fe Catholic University of Santiago del Estero Domingo Faustino Sarmiento (February 15, 1811 – September 11, 1888) was an Argentine activist, intellectual, writer, statesman and the seventh President of Argentina. His writing spanned a wide range of genres and topics, from journalism to autobiography, to political philosophy and history. He was a member of a group of intellectuals, known as the Generation of 1837, who had a great influence on nineteenth-century Argentina. He was particularly concerned with educational issues and was also an important influence on the region's literature. Sarmiento grew up in a poor but politically active family that paved the way for much of his future accomplishments. Between 1843 and 1850 he was frequently in exile, and wrote in both Chile and in Argentina. His greatest literary achievement was Facundo, a critique of Juan Manuel de Rosas, that Sarmiento wrote while working for the newspaper El Progreso during his exile in Chile. The book brought him far more than just literary recognition; he expended his efforts and energy on the war against dictatorships, specifically that of Rosas, and contrasted enlightened Europe—a world where, in his eyes, democracy, social services, and intelligent thought were valued—with the barbarism of the gaucho and especially the caudillo, the ruthless strongmen of nineteenth-century Argentina. While president of Argentina from 1868 to 1874, Sarmiento championed intelligent thought—including education for children and women—and democracy for Latin America. He also took advantage of the opportunity to modernize and develop train systems, a postal system, and a comprehensive education system. He spent many years in ministerial roles on the federal and state levels where he travelled abroad and examined other education systems. Sarmiento died in Asunción, Paraguay, at the age of 77 from a heart attack. He was buried in Buenos Aires. Today, he is respected as a political innovator and writer. Contents [hide] 1 Youth and influences 2 Political background and exiles 2.1 First exile in Chile 2.2 San Juan and second and third exiles in Chile 2.3 Return to Argentina 3 President of Argentina, 1868-1874 4 Final years 5 Philosophy 6 Publications 6.1 Major works 6.2 Other works 7 Legacy 8 Footnotes 9 References 10 External links Youth and influences[edit] A current map of Argentina, showing some of the key locations in Sarmiento's life such as San Juan (to the West) and Buenos Aires (in the East) Sarmiento was born in Carrascal, a poor suburb of San Juan, Argentina on February 15, 1811.[4] His father, José Clemente Quiroga Sarmiento y Funes, had served in the military during the wars of independence, returning prisoners of war to San Juan.[5] His mother, Doña Paula Zoila de Albarracín e Irrázabal, was a very pious woman,[6] who lost her father at a young age and was left with very little to support herself.[6] As a result, she took to selling her weaving in order to afford to build a house of her own. On September 21, 1801, José and Paula were married. They had 15 children, 9 of whom died; Domingo was the only son to survive to adulthood.[6] Sarmiento was greatly influenced by his parents, his mother who was always working hard, and his father who told stories of being a patriot and serving his country, something Sarmiento strongly believed in.[5] In Sarmiento's own words: "I was born in a family that lived long years in mediocrity bordering on destitution, and which is to this day poor in every sense of the word. My father is a good man whose life has nothing remarkable except [for his] having served in subordinate positions in the War of Independence... My mother is the true figure of Christianity in its purest sense; with her, trust in Providence was always the solution to all difficulties in life."[7] At the age of four, Sarmiento was taught to read by his father and his uncle, José Eufrasio Quiroga Sarmiento, who later became Bishop of Cuyo.[8] Another uncle who influenced him in his youth was Domingo de Oro, a notable figure in the young Argentine Republic who was influential in bringing Juan Manuel de Rosas to power.[9] Though Sarmiento did not follow de Oro's political and religious leanings, he learned the value of intellectual integrity and honesty.[9] He developed scholarly and oratorical skills, qualities which de Oro was famous for.[9][10] In 1816, at the age of five, Sarmiento began attending the primary school La Escuela de la Patria. He was a good student, and earned the title of First Citizen (Primer Ciudadano) of the school.[11] After completing primary school, his mother wanted him to go to Córdoba to become a priest. He had spent a year reading the Bible and often spent time as a child helping his uncle with church services,[12] but Sarmiento soon became bored with religion and school, and got involved with a group of aggressive children.[13] Sarmiento's father took him to the Loreto Seminary in 1821, but for reasons unknown, Sarmiento did not enter the seminary, returning instead to San Juan with his father.[14] In 1823, the Minister of State, Bernardino Rivadavia, announced that the six top pupils of each state would be selected to receive higher education in Buenos Aires. Sarmiento was at the top of the list in San Juan, but it was then announced that only ten pupils would receive the scholarship. The selection was made by lot, and Sarmiento was not one of the scholars whose name was drawn.[15] Political background and exiles[edit] Portrait of Sarmiento at the time of his exile in Chile, by Franklin Rawson. Sarmiento portrayed by Ignacio Baz. Portrait of Sarmiento painted by his granddaughter Eugenia. In 1826, an assembly elected Bernardino Rivadavia as president of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata. This action roused the ire of the provinces, and civil war was the result. Support for a strong, centralized Argentine government was based in Buenos Aires, and gave rise to two opposing groups. The wealthy and educated of the Unitarian Party, such as Sarmiento, favored centralized government. In opposition to them were the Federalists, who were mainly based in rural areas and tended to reject European mores. Numbering figures such as Manuel Dorrego and Juan Facundo Quiroga among their ranks, they were in favor of a loose federation with more autonomy for the individual provinces.[16] Opinion of the Rivadavia government was divided between the two ideologies. For Unitarians like Sarmiento, Rivadavia's presidency was a positive experience. He set up a European-staffed university and supported a public education program for rural male children. He also supported theater and opera groups, publishing houses and a museum. These contributions were considered as civilizing influences by the Unitarians, but they upset the Federalist constituency. Common laborers had their salaries subjected to a government cap, and the gauchos were arrested by Rivadavia for vagrancy and forced to work on public projects, usually without pay.[17] In 1827, the Unitarians were challenged by Federalist forces. After the resignation of Rivadavia, Manuel Dorrego was installed as governor of Buenos Aires province. He quickly made peace with Brazil but, on returning to Argentina, was overthrown and executed by the Unitarian general Juan Lavalle, who took Dorrego's place.[18] However, Lavalle did not spend long as governor either: he was soon overthrown by militias composed largely of gauchos led by Rosas and Estanislao López. By the end of 1829 the old legislature that Lavalle had disbanded was back in place and had appointed Rosas as governor of Buenos Aires.[18] The first time Sarmiento was forced to leave home was with his uncle, José de Oro, in 1827, because of his military activities.[19] José de Oro was a priest who had fought in the Battle of Chacabuco under General San Martín.[20] Together, Sarmiento and de Oro went to San Francisco del Monte, in the neighbour province of San Luis. He spent much of his time with his uncle learning and began to teach at a small school in the Andes.[21] Later that year, his mother wrote to him asking him to come home. Sarmiento refused, only to receive a response from his father that he was coming to collect him.[22] His father had persuaded the governor of San Juan to send Sarmiento to Buenos Aires to study at the College of Moral Sciences (Colegio de Ciencias Morales).[22] Soon after Sarmiento's return, the province of San Juan broke out into civil war and Facundo Quiroga invaded Sarmiento's town.[23] As historian William Katra describes this "traumatic experience": At sixteen years of age, he stood in front of the shop he tended and viewed the entrance into San Juan of Facundo Quiroga and some six hundred mounted montonera horsemen. They constituted an unsettling presence [. . . ]. That sight, with its overwhelmingly negative associations, left an indelible impression on his budding consciousness. For the impressionable youth Quiroga's ascent to protagonist status in the province's affairs was akin to the rape of civilized society by incarnated evil.[24] Unable to attend school in Buenos Aires due to the political turmoil, Sarmiento chose to fight against Quiroga.[25] He joined and fought in the unitarian army, only to be placed under house arrest when San Juan was eventually taken over by Quiroga[25] after the battle of Pilar.[26] He is later released, only to join the forces of General Paz, a key unitarian figure.[27] First exile in Chile[edit] Fighting and war soon again resumed, but, one by one, Quiroga vanquished the main allies of General Paz, including the Governor of San Juan, and in 1831 Sarmiento fled to Chile.[27] He did not return to Argentina for five years.[28] At the time, Chile was noted for its good public administration, its constitutional organization, and the rare freedom to criticize the regime. In Sarmiento's view, Chile had "Security of property, the continuation of order, and with both of these, the love of work and the spirit of enterprise that causes the development of wealth and prosperity."[29] As a form of freedom of expression, Sarmiento began to write political commentary. In addition to writing, he also began teaching in Los Andes. Due to his innovative style of teaching, he found himself in conflict with the governor of the province. He founded his own school in Pocuro as a response to the governor. During this time, Sarmiento fell in love and had an illegitimate daughter named Ana Faustina, who Sarmiento did not acknowledge until she married.[30] San Juan and second and third exiles in Chile[edit] Daguerreotype of Domingo Faustino Sarmiento after the Battle of Caseros. He is wearing the Brazilian Order of the Southern Cross given to him by Emperor Pedro II of Brazil during his exile in Petrópolis in 1852[31] Monument in homage to Domingo F. Sarmiento in Boston, Massachusetts Domingo Faustino Sarmiento in Boston, Massachusetts In 1836, Sarmiento returned to San Juan, seriously ill with typhoid fever; his family and friends thought he would die upon his return, but he recovered and established an anti-federalist journal called El Zonda.[32] The government of San Juan did not like Sarmiento's criticisms and censored the magazine by imposing an unaffordable tax upon each purchase. Sarmiento was forced to cease publication of the magazine in 1840. He also founded a school for girls during this time called the Santa Rosa High School, which was a preparatory school.[32] In addition to the school, he also founded a Literary Society.[32] It is around this time that Sarmiento became associated with the so-called "Generation of 1837". This was a group of activists, who included Esteban Echeverría, Juan Bautista Alberdi, and Bartolomé Mitre, who spent much of the 1830s to 1880s first agitating for and then bringing about social change, advocating republicanism, free trade, freedom of speech, and material progress.[33] Though, based in San Juan, Sarmiento was absent from the initial creation of this group, in 1838 he wrote to Alberdi seeking the latter's advice;[34] and in time he would become the group most fervent supporter.[35] In 1840, after being arrested and accused of conspiracy, Sarmiento was forced into exile in Chile again.[36] It was en route to Chile that, in the baths of Zonda, he wrote the graffiti "On ne tue point les idées,"[36] an incident that would later serve as the preface to his book Facundo. Once on the other side of the Andes, in 1841 Samiento started writing for the Valparaíso newspaper El Mercurio, as well working as a publisher of the Crónica Contemporánea de Latino América ("Contemporary Latin American Chronicle").[37] In 1842, Sarmiento was appointed the Director of the first Normal School in South America; the same year he also founded the newspaper El Progreso.[37] During this time he sent for his family from San Juan to Chile. In 1843, Sarmiento published Mi Defensa ("My Defence"), while continuing to teach.[28] And in May 1845, El Progreso started the serial publication of the first edition of his best-known work, Facundo; in July, Facundo appeared in book form.[38] Between the years 1845 and 1847, Sarmiento travelled on behalf of the Chilean government across parts of South America to Uruguay, Brazil, to Europe, France, Spain, Algeria, Italy, Armenia, Switzerland, England, to Cuba, and to North America, the United States and Canada in order to examine different education systems and the levels of education and communication. Based on his travels, he wrote the book Viajes por Europa, África, y América which was published in 1849.[28] In 1848, Sarmiento voluntarily left to Chile once again. During the same year, he met widow Benita Martínez Pastoriza, married her, and adopted her son, Domingo Fidel, or Dominguito,[28] who would be killed in action during the War of the Triple Alliance at Curupaytí in 1866.[39] Sarmiento continued to exercise the idea of freedom of the press and began two new periodicals entitled La Tribuna and La Crónica respectively, which strongly attacked Juan Manuel de Rosas. During this stay in Chile, Sarmiento's essays became more strongly opposed to Juan Manuel de Rosas. The Argentine government tried to have Sarmiento extradited from Chile to Argentina, but the Chilean government refused to hand him over.[30] In 1850, he published both Argirópolis and Recuerdos de Provincia (Recollections of a Provincial Past). In 1852, Rosas's regime was finally brought down. Sarmiento became involved in debates about the country's new constitution.[40] Return to Argentina[edit] Sarmiento in 1864. Photograph by Eugenio Courret. In 1854, Sarmiento briefly visited Mendoza, just across the border from Chile in Western Argentina, but he was arrested and imprisoned. Upon his release, he went back to Chile.[28] But in 1855 he put an end to what was now his "self-imposed" exile in Chile:[41] he arrived in Buenos Aires, soon to become editor-in-chief of the newspaper El Nacional.[42] He was also appointed town councillor in 1856, and 1857 he joined the provincial Senate, a position he held until 1861.[43] It was in 1861, shortly after Mitre became Argentine president, that Sarmiento left Buenos Aires and returned to San Juan, where he was elected governor, a post he took up in 1862.[44] It was then that he passed the Statutory Law of Public Education, making it mandatory for children to attend primary school. It allowed for a number of institutions to be opened including secondary schools, military schools and an all-girls school.[45] While governor, he developed roads and infrastructure, built public buildings and hospitals, encouraged agriculture and allowed for mineral mining.[30] He resumed his post as editor of El Zonda. In 1863, Sarmiento fought against the power of the caudillo of La Rioja and found himself in conflict with the Interior Minister of General Mitre's government, Guillermo Rawson. Sarmiento stepped down as governor of San Juan, but ran unsuccessfully for president of the Argentine Republic in 1864 against General Mitre.[30] He did, however, become the Plenipotentiary Minister to the United States where he was sent in 1865, soon after the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln. Moved by the story of Lincoln, Sarmiento ended up writing his book Vida de Lincoln.[30] It was on this trip that Sarmiento received an honorary degree from the University of Michigan. A bust of him stood in the Modern Languages Building at the University of Michigan until multiple student protests prompted its removal. Students installed plaques and painted the bust red to represent the controversies surrounding his policies towards the indigenous people in Argentina. There still stands a statue of Sarmiento at Brown University. While on this trip, he was asked to run for President again. He won, taking office on October 12, 1868.[30] President of Argentina, 1868-1874[edit] President Sarmiento in 1873. Domingo Faustino Sarmiento served as President of the Republic of Argentina from 1868–1874, becoming president despite the maneuverings of his predecessor Bartolomé Mitre.[46] According to biographer Allison Bunkley, his presidency "marks the advent of the middle, or land-owning classes as the pivot power of the nation. The age of the gaucho had ended, and the age of the merchant and cattleman had begun."[47] Sarmiento sought to create basic freedoms, and wanted to ensure civil safety and progress for everyone, not just the few. Sarmiento's tour of the United States had given him many new ideas about politics, democracy, and the structure of society, especially when he was the Argentine ambassador to the country from 1865 to 1868. He found New England, specifically the Boston-–Cambridge area to be the source of much of his influence, writing in an Argentine newspaper that New England was "the cradle of the modern republic, the school for all of America." He described Boston as "The pioneer city of the modern world, the Zion of the ancient Puritans ... Europe contemplates in New England the power which in the future will supplant her."[48] Not only did Sarmiento evolve political ideas, but also structural ones by transitioning Argentina from a primarily agricultural economy to one focused on cities and industry.[49] Historian David Rock notes that, beyond putting an end to caudillismo, Sarmiento's main achievements in government concerned his promotion of education. As Rock reports, "between 1868 and 1874 educational subsidies from the central government to the provinces quadrupled."[46] He established 800 educational and military institutions, and his improvements to the educational system enabled 100,000 children to attend school. He also pushed forward modernization more generally, building infrastructure including 5,000 kilometres (3,100 mi) of telegraph line across the country for improved communications, making it easier for the government in Buenos Aires and the provinces to communicate; modernizing the postal and train systems which he believed to be integral for interregional and national economies, as well as building the Red Line, a train line that would bring goods to Buenos Aires in order to better facilitate trade with Great Britain. By the end of his presidency, the Red Line extended 1,331 kilometres (827 mi). In 1869, he conducted Argentina's first national census.[30] Though Sarmiento is well known historically, he was not a popular president.[50] Indeed, Rock judges that "by and large his administration was a disappointment".[46] During his presidency, Argentina conducted an unpopular war against Paraguay; at the same time, people were displeased with him for not fighting for the Straits of Magellan from Chile.[50] Although he increased productivity, he increased expenditures, which also negatively affected his popularity.[51] In addition, the arrival of a large influx of European immigrants was blamed for the outbreak of Yellow Fever in Buenos Aires and the risk of civil war.[51] Moreover, Sarmiento's presidency was further marked by ongoing rivalry between Buenos Aires and the provinces. In the war against Paraguay, Sarmiento's adopted son was killed.[30] Sarmiento suffered from immense grief and was thought to never have been the same again. On August 22, 1873, Sarmiento was the target of an unsuccessful assassination attempt, when two Italian anarchist brothers shot at his coach. They had been hired by federal caudillo Ricardo López Jordán.[30] A year later in 1874, he completed his term as President and stepped down, handing his presidency over to Nicolás Avellaneda, his former Minister of Education.[52] Final years[edit] The coffin with the Sarmiento's body, arriving to Buenos Aires to be buried. In 1875, following his term as President, Sarmiento became the General Director of Schools for the Province of Buenos Aires. That same year, he became the Senator for San Juan, a post that he held until 1879, when he became Interior Minister.[53] But he soon resigned, following conflict with the Governor of Buenos Aires, Carlos Tejedor. He then assumed the post of Superintendent General of Schools for the National Education Ministry under President Roca and published El Monitor de la Educación Común, which is a fundamental reference for Argentine education.[54] In 1882, Sarmiento was successful in passing the sanction of Free Education allowing schools to be free, mandatory, and separate from that of religion.[30] In May 1888, Sarmiento left Argentina for Paraguay.[53] He was accompanied by his daughter, Ana, and his companion Aurelia Vélez. He died in Asunción on September 11, 1888, from a heart attack, and was buried in Buenos Aires.[28] His tomb at La Recoleta Cemetery lies under a sculpture, a condor upon a pylon, designed by himself and executed by Victor de Pol. Pedro II, the Emperor of Brazil and a great admirer of Sarmiento, sent to his funeral procession a green and gold crown of flowers with a message written in Spanish remembering the highlights of his life: "Civilization and Barbarism, Tonelero, Monte Caseros, Petrópolis, Public Education. Remembrance and Homage from Pedro de Alcântara."[55] Philosophy[edit] Statue of Sarmiento made by Auguste Rodin. The statue of Sarmiento when being unveiled in 1900. Sarmiento was well known for his modernization of the country, and for his improvements to the educational system. He firmly believed in democracy and European liberalism, but was most often seen as a romantic. Sarmiento was well versed in Western philosophy including the works of Karl Marx and John Stuart Mill.[56] He was particularly fascinated with the liberty given to those living in the United States, which he witnessed as a representative of the Peruvian government. He did, however, see pitfalls to liberty, pointing for example to the aftermath of the French Revolution, which he compared to Argentina's own May Revolution.[57] He believed that liberty could turn into anarchy and thus civil war, which is what happened in France and in Argentina. Therefore, his use of the term "liberty" was more in reference to a laissez-faire approach to the economy, and religious liberty.[57] Though a Catholic himself, he began to adopt the ideas of separation of church and state modeled after the US.[58] He believed that there should be more religious freedom, and less religious affiliation in schools.[59] This was one of many ways in which Sarmiento tried to connect South America to North America.[60] Sarmiento believed that the material and social needs of people had to be satisfied but not at the cost of order and decorum. He put great importance on law and citizen participation. These ideas he most equated to Rome and to the United States, a society which he viewed as exhibiting similar qualities. In order to civilize the Argentine society and make it equal to that of Rome or the United States, Sarmiento believed in eliminating the caudillos, or the larger landholdings and establishing multiple agricultural colonies run by European immigrants.[61] Coming from a family of writers, orators, and clerics, Domingo Sarmiento placed a great value on education and learning. He opened a number of schools including the first school in Latin America for teachers in Santiago in 1842: La Escuela Normal Preceptores de Chile.[45] He proceeded to open 18 more schools and had mostly female teachers from the USA come to Argentina to instruct graduates how to be effective when teaching.[45] Sarmiento's belief was that education was the key to happiness and success, and that a nation could not be democratic if it was not educated.[62] "We must educate our rulers," he said. "An ignorant people will always choose Rosas."[63] Publications[edit] Boston (pronounced Listeni/ È b R s t Y n / ) i s t h e c a p i t a l a n d l a r g e s t c i t y [ 1 1 ] o f t h e C o m m o n w e a l t h o f M a s s a c h u s e t t s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . B o s t o n a l s o s e r v e d a s t h e h i s t o r i c c o u n t y s e a t o f S u f f o l k C o u n t y u n t i l M a s s a c h u s e t t s d i s b a n d e d c o u n t y g o v e r n m e n t i n 1 9 9 9 . T h e c i t y p r o p e r c o v e r s 4 8 s q u are miles (124 km2) with an estimated population of 655,884 in 2014,[12] making it the largest city in New England and the 24th largest city in the United States.[5] The city is the anchor of a substantially larger metropolitan area called Greater Boston, home to 4.5 million people and the tenth-largest metropolitan area in the country.[8] Greater Boston as a commuting region[13] is home to 7.6 million people, making it the sixth-largest Combined Statistical Area in the United States.[9][14] One of the oldest cities in the United States, Boston was founded on the Shawmut Peninsula in 1630 by Puritan settlers from England.[15][16] It was the scene of several key events of the American Revolution, such as the Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, the Battle of Bunker Hill, and the Siege of Boston. Upon American independence from Great Britain, the city continued to be an important port and manufacturing hub, as well as a center for education and culture.[17] Through land reclamation and municipal annexation, Boston has expanded beyond the original peninsula. Its rich history helps attract many tourists, with Faneuil Hall alone attracting over 20 million visitors per year.[18] Boston's many firsts include the United States' first public school, Boston Latin School (1635),[19] and first subway system (1897).[20] The area's many colleges and universities make Boston an international center of higher education and medicine, and the city is considered to be a world leader in innovation for a variety of reasons.[21][22] Boston's economic base also includes finance,[23] professional and business services, and government activities.[24] The city has one of the highest costs of living in the United States,[25] though it remains high on world livability rankings.[26] Contents [hide] 1 History 2 Geography 3 Environment 3.1 Cityscape 3.2 Climate 3.3 Pollution 3.4 Groundwater issues 4 Demographics 4.1 Crime 4.2 Demographic breakdown by zip code 4.2.1 Income 4.3 Religion 5 Economy 6 Culture 7 Sports 8 Parks and recreation 9 Government 10 Education 10.1 Primary and secondary education 10.2 Higher education 11 Media 11.1 Newspapers 11.2 Radio and television 11.3 Film 12 Healthcare 13 Infrastructure 13.1 Transportation 14 Notable people 15 Gallery 16 Sister cities 17 See also 18 Notes 19 References 19.1 Specific 19.2 General 20 Further reading 21 External links History[edit] Main articles: History of Boston and Timeline of Boston Map of Boston in 1775 Map showing a British tactical evaluation of Boston in 1775 Boston's early European settlers had first called the area Trimountaine (after its "three mountains"—only traces of which remain today) but later renamed it Boston after Boston, Lincolnshire, England, from which several prominent colonists had come. The renaming, on September 7, 1630 (Old Style),[27][b] was by Puritan colonists from England,[16][28] who had moved over from Charlestown earlier that year in quest of fresh water. Their settlement was initially limited to the Shawmut Peninsula, at that time surrounded by the Massachusetts Bay and Charles River and connected to the mainland by a narrow isthmus. The peninsula is known to have been inhabited as early as 5000 BC.[29] In 1629, the Massachusetts Bay Colony's first governor, John Winthrop, led the signing of the Cambridge Agreement, a key founding document of the city. Puritan ethics and their focus on education influenced its early history;[30] America's first public school was founded in Boston in 1635.[19] Over the next 130 years, the city participated in four French and Indian Wars, until the British defeated the French and their native allies in North America. Boston was the largest town in British North America until Philadelphia grew larger in the mid 18th century.[31] State Street, 1801 Many of the crucial events of the American Revolution[32]—the Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, Paul Revere's midnight ride, the battles of Lexington and Concord and Bunker Hill, the Siege of Boston, and many others—occurred in or near Boston. After the Revolution, Boston's long seafaring tradition helped make it one of the world's wealthiest international ports, with rum, fish, salt, and tobacco being particularly important.[33] Painting with a body of water with sailing ships in the foreground and a city in the background View of Boston from Dorchester Heights, 1841 Black and white photo of a city square Scollay Square in the 1880s The Embargo Act of 1807, adopted during the Napoleonic Wars, and the War of 1812 significantly curtailed Boston's harbor activity. Although foreign trade returned after these hostilities, Boston's merchants had found alternatives for their capital investments in the interim. Manufacturing became an important component of the city's economy, and by the mid-19th century, the city's industrial manufacturing overtook international trade in economic importance. Until the early 20th century, Boston remained one of the nation's largest manufacturing centers and was notable for its garment production and leather-goods industries.[34] A network of small rivers bordering the city and connecting it to the surrounding region facilitated shipment of goods and led to a proliferation of mills and factories. Later, a dense network of railroads furthered the region's industry and commerce.[35] Tremont Street, 1843 During this period Boston flourished culturally as well, admired for its rarefied literary life and generous artistic patronage,[36][37] with members of old Boston families—eventually dubbed Boston Brahmins—coming to be regarded as the nation's social and cultural elites.[38] Boston was an early port of the Atlantic triangular slave trade in the New England colonies, but was soon overtaken by Salem, Massachusetts and Newport, Rhode Island.[39] Eventually Boston became a center of the abolitionist movement.[40] The city reacted strongly to the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850,[41] contributing to President Franklin Pierce's attempt to make an example of Boston after the Anthony Burns Fugitive Slave Case.[42][43] In 1822,[44] the citizens of Boston voted to change the official name from "the Town of Boston" to "the City of Boston", and on March 4, 1822, the people of Boston accepted the charter incorporating the City.[45] At the time Boston was chartered as a city, the population was about 46,226, while the area of the city was only 4.7 square miles (12 km2).[45] Cutting down Beacon Hill in 1811; a view from the north toward the Massachusetts State House[46] The Old City Hall was home to the Boston city council from 1865 to 1969. In the 1820s, Boston's population grew rapidly, and the city's ethnic composition changed dramatically with the first wave of European immigrants. Irish immigrants dominated the first wave of newcomers during this period, especially following the Irish Potato Famine; by 1850, about 35,000 Irish lived in Boston.[47] In the latter half of the 19th century, the city saw increasing numbers of Irish, Germans, Lebanese, Syrians,[48] French Canadians, and Russian and Polish Jews settled in the city. By the end of the 19th century, Boston's core neighborhoods had become enclaves of ethnically distinct immigrants—Italians inhabited the North End,[49] Irish dominated South Boston and Charlestown, and Russian Jews lived in the West End. Irish and Italian immigrants brought with them Roman Catholicism. Currently, Catholics make up Boston's largest religious community,[50] and since the early 20th century, the Irish have played a major role in Boston politics—prominent figures include the Kennedys, Tip O'Neill, and John F. Fitzgerald.[51] Between 1631 and 1890, the city tripled its area through land reclamation by filling in marshes, mud flats, and gaps between wharves along the waterfront.[52] The largest reclamation efforts took place during the 19th century; beginning in 1807, the crown of Beacon Hill was used to fill in a 50-acre (20 ha) mill pond that later became the Haymarket Square area. The present-day State House sits atop this lowered Beacon Hill. Reclamation projects in the middle of the century created significant parts of the South End, the West End, the Financial District, and Chinatown. After The Great Boston Fire of 1872, workers used building rubble as landfill along the downtown waterfront. During the mid-to-late 19th century, workers filled almost 600 acres (2.4 km2) of brackish Charles River marshlands west of Boston Common with gravel brought by rail from the hills of Needham Heights. The city annexed the adjacent towns of South Boston (1804), East Boston (1836), Roxbury (1868), Dorchester (including present day Mattapan and a portion of South Boston) (1870), Brighton (including present day Allston) (1874), West Roxbury (including present day Jamaica Plain and Roslindale) (1874), Charlestown (1874), and Hyde Park (1912).[53][54] Other proposals, for the annexation of Brookline, Cambridge,[55] and Chelsea,[56][57] were unsuccessful. Colored print image of a city square in the 1900s Haymarket Square, 1909 By the early and mid-20th century, the city was in decline as factories became old and obsolete, and businesses moved out of the region for cheaper labor elsewhere.[58] Boston responded by initiating various urban renewal projects under the direction of the Boston Redevelopment Authority (BRA), which was established in 1957. In 1958, BRA initiated a project to improve the historic West End neighborhood. Extensive demolition was met with vociferous public opposition.[59] The BRA subsequently reevaluated its approach to urban renewal in its future projects, including the construction of Government Center. In 1965, the first Community Health Center in the United States opened, the Columbia Point Health Center, in the Dorchester neighborhood. It mostly served the massive Columbia Point public housing complex adjoining it, which was built in 1953. The health center is still in operation and was rededicated in 1990 as the Geiger-Gibson Community Health Center.[60] The Columbia Point complex itself was redeveloped and revitalized into a mixed-income community called Harbor Point Apartments from 1984 to 1990.[61] By the 1970s, the city's economy boomed after 30 years of economic downturn. A large number of high rises were constructed in the Financial District and in Boston's Back Bay during this time period.[62] This boom continued into the mid-1980s and later began again. Hospitals such as Massachusetts General Hospital, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, and Brigham and Women's Hospital lead the nation in medical innovation and patient care. Schools such as Boston College, Boston University, the Harvard Medical School, Northeastern University, Wentworth Institute of Technology, Berklee College of Music and Boston Conservatory attract students to the area. Nevertheless, the city experienced conflict starting in 1974 over desegregation busing, which resulted in unrest and violence around public schools throughout the mid-1970s.[63] Back Bay Boston is an intellectual, technological, and political center but has lost some important regional institutions,[64] including the acquisition of The Boston Globe by The New York Times,[65] and the loss to mergers and acquisitions of local financial institutions such as FleetBoston Financial, which was acquired by Charlotte-based Bank of America in 2004.[66] Boston-based department stores Jordan Marsh and Filene's have both been merged into the Cincinnati–based Macy's.[67] Boston has experienced gentrification in the latter half of the 20th century,[68] with housing prices increasing sharply since the 1990s.[25] Living expenses have risen, and Boston has one of the highest costs of living in the United States,[69] and was ranked the 129th most expensive major city in the world in a 2011 survey of 214 cities.[70] Despite cost of living issues, Boston ranks high on livability ratings, ranking 36th worldwide in quality of living in 2011 in a survey of 221 major cities.[71] On April 15, 2013, two Chechen Islamist brothers exploded two bombs near the finish line of the Boston Marathon, killing three people and injuring roughly 264.[72] Geography[edit] Aerial view of the Boston area from space Boston as seen from the International Space Station (ISS) Boston has an area of 89.6 square miles (232.1 km2)—48.4 square miles (125.4 km2) (54.0%) of land and 41.2 square miles (106.7 km2) (46.0%) of water—and is the country's third most densely populated city that is not a part of a larger city's metropolitan area.[c] This is largely attributable to the rarity of annexation by New England towns. The city's official elevation, as measured at Logan International Airport, is 19 ft (5.8 m) above sea level.[73] The highest point in Boston is Bellevue Hill at 330 feet (100 m) above sea level, and the lowest point is at sea level.[74] Situated near the Atlantic Ocean, Boston is the only state capital in the contiguous United States with an ocean coastline.[75] The geographical center of Boston is in Roxbury. Due north of the center we find the South End. This is not to be confused with South Boston which lies directly east from the South End. North of the South End is East Boston and southwest of East Boston is the North End. — A u t h o r , U n k n o w n A c o m m o n l o c a l c o l l o q u i a l i s m B o s t o n i s s u r r o u n d e d b y t h e " G r e a t e r B o s t o n " r e g i o n a n d i s c o n t i g u o u s l y b o r d e r e d b y t h e c i t i e s a n d t o w n s o f W i n t h r o p , R e v e r e , C h e l s e a , E v e r e t t , S o m e r v i l l e , C a m b r i d g e , N e w t o n , B r o o k l i n e , N e e d h a m , D e d h a m , C a n t o n, Milton, and Quincy. The Charles River separates Boston from Watertown and the majority of Cambridge, and the mass of Boston from its own Charlestown neighborhood. To the east lie Boston Harbor and the Boston Harbor Islands National Recreation Area (which includes part of the city's territory, specifically Calf Island, Gallops Island, Great Brewster Island, Green Island, Little Brewster Island, Little Calf Island, Long Island, Lovells Island, Middle Brewster Island, Nixes Mate, Outer Brewster Island, Rainsford Island, Shag Rocks, Spectacle Island, The Graves, and Thompson Island). The Neponset River forms the boundary between Boston's southern neighborhoods and the city of Quincy and the town of Milton. The Mystic River separates Charlestown from Chelsea and Everett, and Chelsea Creek and Boston Harbor separate East Boston from Boston proper.[76] The city's water supply, from the Quabbin and Wachusett Reservoirs to the west,[77] is one of the very few in the country so pure as to satisfy federal quality standards without filtration.[78] Environment[edit] Cityscape[edit] See also: Neighborhoods in Boston From left to right: Boston City Hall, the West End, the North End, Charlestown, Boston Harbor, East Boston John Hancock Tower is the tallest building in Boston. Reflecting pool with highrises in the background Reflecting pool of the headquarters of the Church of Christ, Scientist. The Prudential Tower and 111 Huntington Avenue are in the background. Former home of the Museum of Natural History, Back Bay Back Bay row houses Autumn foliage with a city skyline in the distant background Boston's skyline in the background, with fall foliage in the foreground Boston is sometimes called a "city of neighborhoods" because of the profusion of diverse subsections; the city government's Office of Neighborhood Services has officially designated 23 neighborhoods.[79] More than two-thirds of inner Boston's modern land area did not exist when the city was founded, but was created via the gradual filling in of the surrounding tidal areas over the centuries,[52] notably with earth from the leveling or lowering of Boston's three original hills (the "Trimountain", after which Tremont Street is named), and with gravel brought by train from Needham to fill the Back Bay.[17] Downtown and its immediate surroundings consists largely of low-rise (often Federal style and Greek Revival) masonry buildings, interspersed with modern highrises, notably in the Financial District, Government Center, and South Boston.[80] Back Bay includes many prominent landmarks, such as the Boston Public Library, Christian Science Center, Copley Square, Newbury Street, and New England's two tallest buildings—the John Hancock Tower and the Prudential Center.[81] Near the John Hancock Tower is the old John Hancock Building with its prominent illuminated beacon, the color of which forecasts the weather.[82] Smaller commercial areas are interspersed among areas of single-family homes and wooden/brick multi-family row houses. The South End Historic District is the largest surviving contiguous Victorian-era neighborhood in the US.[83] The geography of downtown and South Boston was particularly impacted by the Central Artery/Tunnel Project (known unofficially as the "Big Dig"), which allowed for the removal of the unsightly elevated Central Artery and the incorporation of new green spaces and open areas.[84] Climate[edit] B o s t o n h a s a c o n t i n e n t a l c l i m a t e w i t h s o m e m a r i t i m e i n f l u e n c e , a n d u s i n g t h e "3 ° C ( 2 7 ° F ) c o l d e s t m o n t h ( J a n u a r y ) i s o t h e r m , t h e c i t y l i e s w i t h i n t h e t r a n s i t i o n z o n e f r o m a h u m i d s u b t r o p i c a l c l i m a t e ( K ö p p e n C f a ) t o a h u m i d c o n t i n e n t a l c l i m a t e ( K ö p p e n D f a ) , [85][86] although the suburbs north and west of the city are significantly colder in winter and solidly fall under the latter categorization; the city lies at the transition between USDA plant hardiness zones 6b (most of the city) and 7a (Downtown, South Boston, and East Boston neighborhoods).[87] Summers are typically warm to hot, rainy, and humid, while winters oscillate between periods of cold rain and snow, with cold temperatures. Spring and fall are usually mild, with varying conditions dependent on wind direction and jet stream positioning. Prevailing wind patterns that blow offshore minimize the influence of the Atlantic Ocean.[88] The hottest month is July, with a mean temperature of 73.4 °F (23.0 °C). The coldest month is January, with a mean of 29. 0 ° F ( "1 . 7 ° C ) . P e r i o d s e x c e e d i n g 9 0 ° F ( 3 2 ° C ) i n s u m m e r a n d b e l o w f r e e z i n g i n w i n t e r a r e n o t u n c o m m o n b u t r a r e l y e x t e n d e d , w i t h a b o u t 1 3 a n d 2 5 d a y s p e r y e a r s e e i n g e a c h , r e s p e c t i v e l y . [ 8 9 ] T h e m o s t r e c e n t s u b - 0 ° F ( "1 8 ° C ) r e a d i n g o c c u r r i n g o n F e b r u a r y 1 6 , 2 0 1 5 w h e n t h e t e m p e r a t u r e d i p p e d d o w n t o "3 ° F ( "1 9 ° C ) . I n a d d i t i o n , s e v e r a l d e c a d e s m a y p a s s b e t w e e n 1 0 0 ° F ( 3 8 ° C ) r e a d i n g s , w i t h t h e m o s t r e c e n t s u c h o c c u r r e n c e o n J u l y 2 2 , 2 0 1 1 w h e n t h e t e m p e r a t u r e r e a c h e d 1 0 3 ° F ( 3 9 ° C ) . [ 8 9 ] T h e c i t y ' s a v e r a g e w i n d o w f o r f r e e z i n g t e m p e r a t u r e s i s N o v e m b e r 9 t h r o u g h A p r i l 5 . [ 8 9 ] [ d ] O f f i c i a l t e m p e r a t u r e r e c o r d s h a v e r a n g e d f r o m "1 8 ° F ( "2 8 ° C ) o n F e b r u a r y 9 , 1 9 3 4 , u p t o 1 0 4 ° F ( 4 0 ° C ) o n J u l y 4 , 1 9 1 1 ; t h e r e c o r d c o l d d a i l y m a x i m u m i s 2 ° F ( "1 7 ° C ) o n D e c e m b e r 3 0 , 1 9 1 7 , while, conversely, the record warm daily minimum is 83 °F (28 °C) on August 2, 1975.[90] Boston's coastal location on the North Atlantic moderates its temperature, but makes the city very prone to Nor'easter weather systems that can produce much snow and rain.[91] The city averages 43.8 inches (1,110 mm) of precipitation a year, with 43.8 inches (111 cm) of snowfall per season.[89] Snowfall increases dramatically as one goes inland away from the city (especially north and west of the city)—away from the moderating influence of the ocean.[92] Most snowfall occurs from December through March, as most years see no measurable snow in April and November, and snow is rare in May and October.[93][94] There is also high year-to-year variability in snowfall; for instance, the winter of 2011–12 saw only 9.3 in (23.6 cm) of accumulating snow, but the previous winter, the corresponding figure was 81.0 in (2.06 m).[89][e] Fog is fairly common, particularly in spring and early summer, and the occasional tropical storm or hurricane can threaten the region, especially in late summer and early autumn. Due to its situation along the North Atlantic, the city is often subjected to sea breezes, especially in the late spring, when water temperatures are still quite cold and temperatures at the coast can be more than 20 °F (11 °C) colder than a few miles inland, sometimes dropping by that amount near midday.[95][96] Thunderstorms occur from May to September, that are occasionally severe with large hail, damaging winds and heavy downpours.[91] Although downtown Boston has never been struck by a violent tornado, the city itself has experienced many tornado warnings. Damaging storms are more common to areas north, west, and northwest of the city.[97] [hide]Climate data for Boston ( L o g a n A i r p o r t ) , 1 9 8 1 "2 0 1 0 n o r m a l s , e x t r e m e s 1 8 7 2 "p r e s e n t [ f ] M o n t h J a n F e b M a r A p r M a y J u n J u l A u g S e p O c t N o v D e c Y e a r R e c o r d h i g h ° F ( ° C ) 7 2 ( 2 2 ) 7 0 ( 2 1 ) 8 9 ( 3 2 ) 9 4 ( 3 4 ) 9 7 ( 3 6 ) 1 0 0 ( 3 8 ) 1 0 4 ( 4 0 ) 1 0 2 ( 3 9 ) 1 0 2 1753 Benjamin Banneker designed and built the first clock in the British American colonies. He also created a series of almanacs. He corresponded with Thomas Jefferson and wrote that "blacks were intellectually equal to whites". Banneker worked with Pierre L'Enfant to survey and design a street and urban plan for Washington, D.C.[10] 1760 Jupiter Hammon has a poem printed, becoming the first published African-American poet. 1765–1767 Non-Importation Agreements – The First Continental Congress creates a multi-colony agreement to forbid importation of anything from British merchants. This implicitly includes slaves, and stops the slave trade in Philadelphia. The second similar act explicitly stops the slave trade.[11] 1770 March 5 – Crispus Attucks is killed by British soldiers in the Boston Massacre, a precursor to the American Revolution. 1773 Phillis Wheatley has her book Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral published. 1774 The first black Baptist congregations are organized in the South: Silver Bluff Baptist Church in South Carolina, and First African Baptist Church near Petersburg, Virginia. 1775 April 14 – The Society for the Relief of Free Negroes Unlawfully held in Bondage holds four meetings. It was re-formed in 1784 as the Pennsylvania Abolition Society, and Benjamin Franklin would later be its president. 1776–1783 American Revolution Thousands of enslaved African Americans in the South escape to British lines, as they were promised freedom to fight with the British. In South Carolina, 25,000 enslaved African Americans, one-quarter of those held, escape to the British or otherwise leave their plantations.[12] After the war, many African Americans are evacuated with the British for England; more than 3,000 Black Loyalists are transported with other Loyalists to Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, where they are granted land. Still others go to Jamaica and the West Indies. An estimated 8-10,000 were evacuated from the colonies in these years as free people, about 50 percent of those slaves who defected to the British and about 80 percent of those who survived.[13] Many free blacks in the North fight with the colonists for the rebellion. 1777 July 8 – The Vermont Republic (a sovereign nation at the time) abolishes slavery, the first future state to do so. No slaves were held in Vermont. 1780 Pennsylvania becomes the first U.S. state to abolish slavery. 1781 In challenges by Elizabeth Freeman and Quock Walker, two independent county courts in Massachusetts found slavery illegal under state constitution and declared each to be free persons. 1783 Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court affirmed that Massachusetts state constitution had abolished slavery. It ruled that "the granting of rights and privileges [was] wholly incompatible and repugnant to" slavery, in an appeal case arising from the escape of Marijonas Mikutavicius – singer author of Trys Milijonai the unofficial sports anthem in Lithuania Vincas Niekus – lt Vincas Niekus composer Virgilijus Noreika – one of the most successful opera singers tenor Mykolas Kleopas Oginskis – one of the best composer of the late th century Kipras Petrauskas – lt Kipras Petrauskas popular early opera singer tenor Stasys Povilaitis – one of the popular singers during the Soviet period Violeta Riaubiškyte – pop singer TV show host Mindaugas Rojus opera singer tenor baritone Ceslovas Sasnauskas – composer Rasa Serra – lt Rasa Serra real name Rasa Veretenceviene singer Traditional folk A cappella jazz POP Audrone Simonaityte Gaižiuniene – lt Audrone Gaižiuniene Simonaityte one of the more popular female opera singers soprano Virgis Stakenas – lt Virgis Stakenas singer of country folk music Antanas Šabaniauskas – lt Antanas Šabaniauskas singer tenor Jurga Šeduikyte – art rock musician won the Best Female Act and the Best Album of in the Lithuanian Bravo Awards and the Best Baltic Act at the MTV Europe Music Awards Jonas Švedas – composer Michael Tchaban composer singer and songwriter Violeta Urmanaviciute Urmana opera singer soprano mezzosoprano appearing internationally Painters and graphic artists edit See also List of Lithuanian artists Robertas Antinis – sculptor Vytautas Ciplijauskas lt Vytautas Ciplijauskas painter Jonas Ceponis – lt Jonas Ceponis painter Mikalojus Konstantinas Ciurlionis – painter and composer Asteroid Ciurlionis is named for him Kostas Dereškevicius lt Kostas Dereškevicius painter Vladimiras Dubeneckis painter architect Stasys Eidrigevicius graphic artist Pranas Gailius lt Pranas Gailius painter Paulius Galaune Petronele Gerlikiene – self taught Lithuanian American artist Algirdas Griškevicius lt Algirdas Griškevicius Vincas Grybas – sculptor Leonardas Gutauskas lt Leonardas Gutauskas painter writer Vytautas Kairiukštis – lt Vytautas Kairiukštis painter art critic Vytautas Kasiulis – lt Vytautas Kasiulis painter graphic artist stage designer Petras Kalpokas painter Rimtas Kalpokas – lt Rimtas Kalpokas painter graphic artist Leonas Katinas – lt Leonas Katinas painter Povilas Kaupas – lt Povilas Kaupas Algimantas Kezys Lithuanian American photographer Vincas Kisarauskas – lt Vincas Kisarauskas painter graphic artist stage designer Saulute Stanislava Kisarauskiene – lt Saulute Stanislava Kisarauskiene graphic artist painter Stasys Krasauskas – lt Stasys Krasauskas graphic artist Stanislovas Kuzma – lt Stanislovas Kuzma sculptor Antanas Martinaitis – lt Antanas Martinaitis painter Jonas Rimša – lt Jonas Rimša painter Jan Rustem painter Antanas Samuolis – lt Antanas Samuolis painter Šarunas Sauka painter Boris Schatz – sculptor and founder of the Bezalel Academy Irena Sibley née Pauliukonis – Children s book author and illustrator Algis Skackauskas – painter Antanas Žmuidzinavicius – painter Franciszek Smuglewicz – painter Yehezkel Streichman Israeli painter Kazys Šimonis – painter Algimantas Švegžda – lt Algimantas Švegžda painter Otis Tamašauskas Lithographer Print Maker Graphic Artist Adolfas Valeška – painter and graphic artist Adomas Varnas – painter Kazys Varnelis – artist Vladas Vildžiunas lt Vladas Vildžiunas sculptor Mikalojus Povilas Vilutis lt Mikalojus Povilas Vilutis graphic artist Viktoras Vizgirda – painter William Zorach – Modern artist who died in Bath Maine Antanas Žmuidzinavicius – painter Kazimieras Leonardas Žoromskis – painter Politics edit President Valdas Adamkus right chatting with Vice President Dick Cheney left See also List of Lithuanian rulers Mindaugas – the first and only King of Lithuania – Gediminas – the ruler of Lithuania – Algirdas – the ruler together with Kestutis of Lithuania – Kestutis – the ruler together with Algirdas of Lithuania – Vytautas – the ruler of Lithuania – together with Jogaila Jogaila – the ruler of Lithuania – from to together with Vytautas the king of Poland – Jonušas Radvila – the field hetman of Grand Duchy of Lithuania – Dalia Grybauskaite – current President of Lithuania since Valdas Adamkus – President of Lithuania till Jonas Basanavicius – "father" of the Act of Independence of Algirdas Brazauskas – the former First secretary of Central Committee of Communist Party of Lithuanian SSR the former president of Lithuania after and former Prime Minister of Lithuania Joe Fine – mayor of Marquette Michigan – Kazys Grinius – politician third President of Lithuania Mykolas Krupavicius – priest behind the land reform in interwar Lithuania Vytautas Landsbergis – politician professor leader of Sajudis the independence movement former speaker of Seimas member of European Parliament Stasys Lozoraitis – diplomat and leader of Lithuanian government in exile – Stasys Lozoraitis junior – politician diplomat succeeded his father as leader of Lithuanian government in exile – Antanas Merkys – the last Prime Minister of interwar Lithuania Rolandas Paksas – former President removed from the office after impeachment Justas Paleckis – journalist and politician puppet Prime Minister after Soviet occupation Kazimiera Prunskiene – the first female Prime Minister Mykolas Sleževicius – three times Prime Minister organized

( 3 9 ) 9 0 ( 3 2 ) 8 3 ( 2 8 ) 7 6 ( 2 4 ) 1 0 4 ( 4 0 ) A v e r a g e h i g h ° F ( ° C ) 3 5 . 8 ( 2 . 1 ) 3 8 . 7 ( 3 . 7 ) 4 5 . 4 ( 7 . 4 ) 5 5 . 6 ( 1 3 . 1 ) 6 6 . 0 ( 1 8 . 9 ) 7 5 . 9 ( 2 4 . 4 ) 8 1 . 4 ( 2 7 . 4 ) 7 9 . 6 ( 2 6 . 4 ) 7 2 . 4 ( 2 2 . 4 ) 6 1 . 4 ( 1 6 . 3 ) 5 1 . 5 ( 1 0 . 8 ) 4 1 . 2 ( 5 . 1 ) 5 8 . 8 ( 1 4 . 9 ) D a i l y m e a n ° F ( ° C ) 2 9 . 0 ( "1 . 7 ) 3 1 . 7 ( "0 . 2 ) 3 8 . 3 ( 3 . 5 ) 4 8 . 1 ( 8 . 9 ) 5 7 . 9 ( 1 4 . 4 ) 6 7 . 7 ( 1 9 . 8 ) 7 3 . 4 ( 2 3 ) 7 2 . 1 ( 2 2 . 3 ) 6 4 . 9 ( 1 8 . 3 ) 5 4 . 0 ( 1 2 . 2 ) 4 4 . 7 ( 7 . 1 ) 3 4 . 7 ( 1 . 5 ) 5 1 . 4 ( 1 0 . 8 ) A v e r a g e l o w ° F ( ° C ) 2 2 . 2 ( "5 . 4 ) 2 4 . 7 ( "4 . 1 ) 3 1 . 1 ( "0 . 5 ) 4 0 . 6 ( 4 . 8 ) 4 9 . 9 ( 9 . 9 ) 5 9 . 5 ( 1 5 . 3 ) 6 5 . 4 ( 1 8 . 6 ) 6 4 . 6 ( 1 8 . 1 ) 5 7 . 4 ( 1 4 . 1 ) 4 6 . 5 ( 8 . 1 ) 3 8 . 0 ( 3 . 3 ) 2 8 . 2 ( "2 . 1 ) 4 4 . 1 ( 6 . 7 ) R e c o r d l o w ° F ( ° C ) "1 3 ( "2 5 ) "1 8 ( "2 8 ) "8 ( "2 2 ) 1 1 ( "1 2 ) 3 1 ( "1 ) 4 1 ( 5 ) 5 0 ( 1 0 ) 4 6 ( 8 ) 3 4 ( 1 ) 2 5 ( "4 ) "2 ( "1 9 ) "1 7 ( "2 7 ) "1 8 ( "2 8 ) A v e r a g e p r e c i p i t a t i o n i n c h e s ( m m ) 3 . 3 6 ( 8 5 . 3 ) 3 . 2 5 ( 8 2 . 6 ) 4 . 3 2 ( 1 0 9 . 7 ) 3 . 7 4 ( 9 5 ) 3 . 4 9 ( 8 8 . 6 ) 3 . 6 8 ( 9 3 . 5 ) 3 . 4 3 ( 8 7 . 1 ) 3 . 3 5 ( 8 5 . 1 ) 3 . 4 4 ( 8 7 . 4 ) 3 . 9 4 ( 1 0 0 . 1 ) 3 . 9 9 ( 1 0 1 . 3 ) 3 . 7 8 ( 9 6 ) 4 3 . 7 7 ( 1 , 1 1 1 . 8 ) A v e r a g e s n o w f a l l i n c h e s ( c m ) 1 2 . 9 ( 3 2 . 8 ) 1 0 . 9 ( 2 7 . 7 ) 7 . 8 ( 1 9 . 8 ) 1 . 9 ( 4 . 8 ) 0 ( 0 ) 0 ( 0 ) 0 ( 0 ) 0 ( 0 ) 0 ( 0 ) t r a c e 1 . 3 ( 3 . 3 ) 9 . 0 ( 2 2 . 9 ) 4 3 . 8 ( 1 1 1 . 3 ) A v e r a g e p r e c i p i t a t i o n d a y s ( e" 0 . 0 1 i n ) 1 1 . 3 9 . 8 1 1 . 6 1 1 . 2 1 2 . 0 1 0 . 9 9 . 6 9 . 4 8 . 6 9 . 4 1 0 . 6 1 1 . 6 1 2 6 . 0 A v e r a g e s n o w y d a y s ( e" 0 . 1 i n ) 6 . 7 5 . 3 4 . 2 0 . 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 . 1 0 . 8 4 . 6 2 2 . 4 A v e r a g e r e l a t i v e h u m i d i t y ( % ) 6 2 . 3 6 2 . 0 6 3 . 1 6 3 . 0 6 6 . 7 6 8 . 5 6 8 . 4 7 0 . 8 7 1 . 8 6 8 . 5 6 7 . 5 6 5 . 4 6 6 . 5 M e a n m o n t h l y s u n s h i n e h o u r s 1 6 3 . 4 1 6 8 . 4 2 1 3 . 7 2 2 7 . 2 2 6 7 . 3 2 8 6 . 5 3 0 0 . 9 2 7 7 . 3 2 3 7 . 1 2 0 6 . 3 1 4 3 . 2 1 4 2 . 3 2 , 6 3 3 . 6 P e r c e n t p o s s i b l e s u n s h i n e 5 6 5 7 5 8 5 7 5 9 6 3 6 5 6 4 6 3 6 0 4 9 5 0 5 9 S o u r c e : N O A A ( r e l a t i v e h u m i d i t y a n d s u n 1 9 6 1 "1 9 9 0 ) [ 9 9 ] [ 8 9 ] [ 1 0 0 ] P o l l u t i o n [ e d i t ] A i r q u a l i t y i n B o s t o n i s g e n e r a l l y v e r y g ood: during the ten-year period 2004–2013, there were only 4 days in which the air was unhealthy for the general public, according to the EPA.[101] Some of the cleaner energy facilities in Boston include the Allston green district, with three eco-friendly housing facilities.[102] Boston is also breaking ground on multiple green affordable housing facilities to help reduce the carbon footprint of the city while simultaneously making these initiatives financially available to a greater population. Boston's climate plan is updated every three years and was most recently modified in 2013. This legislature includes the Building Energy Reporting and Disclosure Ordinance, which requires the city's larger buildings to disclose their yearly energy and water use statistics and partake in an energy assessment every five years. These statistics are made public by the city, thereby increasing incentives for buildings to be more environmentally conscious.[103] Another initiative, presented by the late Mayor Thomas Menino, is the Renew Boston Whole Building Incentive, which reduces the cost of living in buildings that are deemed energy efficient. This, much like the green housing developments, gives people of low socioeconomic status an opportunity to find housing in communities that support the environment. The ultimate goal of this initiative is to enlist 500 Bostonians to participate in a free, in-home energy assessment.[103] Groundwater issues[edit] External images Cut-away view of typical pile-supported building Many older buildings in certain areas of Boston are supported by wooden piles driven into the area's fill; these piles remain sound if submerged in water, but are subject to dry rot if exposed to air for long periods.[104] Groundwater levels have been dropping, to varying degrees, in many areas of the city, due in part to an increase in the amount of rainwater discharged directly into sewers rather than absorbed by the ground. A city agency, the Boston Groundwater Trust, coordinates monitoring of groundwater levels throughout the city via a network of public and private monitoring wells.[105] Demographics[edit] See also: History of the Chinese in Boston, History of the Irish in Boston and History of the Vietnamese in Boston Map of Boston and the surrounding area displaying per capita income distribution Per capita income in the Greater Boston area, by US Census block group, 2000. The dashed line shows the boundary of the City of Boston. Historical population Year Pop. ±% 1722 10,567 — 1765 15,520 +46.9% 1790 18,320 +18.0% 1800 24,937 +36.1% 1810 33,787 +35.5% 1820 43,298 +28.1% 1830 61,392 +41.8% 1840 93,383 +52.1% 1850 136,881 +46.6% 1860 177,840 +29.9% 1870 250,526 +40.9% 1880 362,839 +44.8% 1890 448,477 +23.6% 1900 560,892 +25.1% 1910 670,585 +19.6% 1920 748,060 +11.6% 1930 781,188 +4.4% 1940 770,81 6 "1 . 3 % 1 9 5 0 8 0 1 , 4 4 4 + 4 . 0 % 1 9 6 0 6 9 7 , 1 9 7 "1 3 . 0 % 1 9 7 0 6 4 1 , 0 7 1 "8 . 1 % 1 9 8 0 5 6 2 , 9 9 4 "1 2 . 2 % 1 9 9 0 5 7 4 , 2 8 3 + 2 . 0 % 2 0 0 0 5 8 9 , 1 4 1 + 2 . 6 % 2 0 1 0 6 1 7 , 5 9 4 + 4 . 8 % 2 0 1 4 6 5 5 , 8 8 4 + 6 . 2 % * = p o p u l a t i o n e s t i m a t e . S o u r c e : U n i t e d S t a t e s C e n s u s r e c o r d s a n d P o p u l a t i o n E s t i m a t e s P r o g r a m data.[106][107][108][109][110][111][112][113][114][115][116][117] Source: U.S. Decennial Census[118] In 2010 Boston was estimated to have 617,594 residents (a density of 12,200 persons/sq mile, or 4,700/km2) living in 272,481 housing units—[5] a 5% population increase over 2000. Some 1.2 million persons may be within Boston's boundaries during work hours, and as many as 2 million during special events. This fluctuation of people is caused by hundreds of thousands of suburban residents who travel to the city for work, education, health care, and special events.[119] In the city, the population was spread out with 21.9% at age 19 and under, 14.3% from 20 to 24, 33.2% from 25 to 44, 20.4% from 45 to 64, and 10.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 30.8 years. For every 100 females, there were 92.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.9 males.[120] There were 252,699 households, of which 20.4% had children under the age of 18 living in them, 25.5% were married couples living together, 16.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 54.0% were non-families. 37.1% of all households were made up of individuals and 9.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.26 and the average family size was 3.08.[120] The median income for a household in the city was $51,739, and the median income for a family was $61,035. Full-time year-round male workers had a median income of $52,544 versus $46,540 for full-time year-round female workers. The per capita income for the city was $33,158. 21.4% of the population and 16.0% of families are below the poverty line. Of the total population, 28.8% of those under the age of 18 and 20.4% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line.[121] In 1950, whites represented 94.7% of Boston's population.[122] From the 1950s to the end of the 20th century, the proportion of non-Hispanic whites in the city declined; in 2000, non-Hispanic whites made up 49.5% of the city's population, making the city majority-minority for the first time. However, in recent years the city has experienced significant gentrification, in which affluent whites have moved into formerly non-white areas. In 2006, the US Census Bureau estimated that non-Hispanic whites again formed a slight majority. But As of 2010, in part due to the housing crash, as well as increased efforts to make more affordable housing more available, the minority population has rebounded. This may also have to do with an increased Latino population and more clarity surrounding US Census statistics, which indicate a Non-Hispanic White population of 47 percent (some reports give slightly lower figures).[123][124][125] Race/Ethnicity Composition Race/Ethnicity 2013 [126] 1990[122] 1970[122] 1940[122] White (includes White Hispanics) 52.9% 62.8% 81.8% 96.7% Black 24.1% 25.6% 16.3% 3.1% Amerindian 0.4% 0.3% 0.2% – Asian 9.0% 5.3% 1.3% 0.2% Two or more races 4.5% – – – Hispanic or Latino (of any race) 18.8% 10.8% 2.8% [127] 0.1% Non-Hispanic Whites 45.9% 59.0% 79.5% [127] 96.6% People of Irish descent form the largest single ethnic group in the city, making up 15.8% of the population, followed by Italians, accounting for 8.3% of the population. People of West Indian and Caribbean ancestry are another sizable group, at 6.0%,[128] about half of whom are of Haitian ancestry. Some neighborhoods, such as Dorchester, have received an influx of people of Vietnamese ancestry in recent decades. Neighborhoods such as Jamaica Plain and Roslindale have experienced a growing number of Dominican Americans.[129] The city and greater area also has a large immigration population of South Asians, including the tenth-largest Indian community in the country. The city has a sizable Jewish population with an estimated 25,000 Jews within the city and 227,000 within the Boston metro area; the number of congregations in Boston is estimated at 22.[130][131] The adjacent communities of Brookline and Newton are both approximately one-third Jewish.[130] The city, especially the East Boston neighborhood, has a significant Hispanic community. Hispanics in Boston are mostly of Puerto Rican (30,506 or 4.9% of total city population), Dominican (25,648 or 4.2% of total city population), Salvadoran (10,850 or 1.8% of city population), Colombian (6,649 or 1.1% of total city population), Mexican (5,961 or 1.0% of total city population), and Guatemalan (4,451 or 0.7% of total city population) ethnic origin. When including all Hispanic national origins, they number 107,917. In Greater Boston, these numbers grow significantly with Puerto Ricans numbering 175,000+, Dominicans 95,000+, Salvadorans 40,000+, Guatemalans 31,000+, Mexicans 25,000+, and Colombians numbering 22,000+.[132] The city is the anchor of a substantially larger metropolitan area called Greater Boston, home to 4.5 million people and the tenth-largest metropolitan area in the country.[8] Greater Boston as a commuting region[13] is home to 7.6 million people, making it the sixth-largest Combined Statistical Area in the United States.[9][14] Crime[edit] White Boston Police car with blue and gray stripes down the middle A Boston Police cruiser on Beacon Street Like many major American cities, Boston has seen a great reduction in violent crime since the early 1990s. Boston's low crime rate since the 1990s has been credited to the Boston Police Department's collaboration with neighborhood groups and church parishes to prevent youths from joining gangs, as well as involvement from the United States Attorney and District Attorney's offices. This helped lead in part to what has been touted as the "Boston Miracle". Murders in the city dropped from 152 in 1990 (for a murder rate of 26.5 per 100,000 people) to just 31—not one of them a juvenile—in 1999 (for a murder rate of 5.26 per 100,000).[133] In the 2000s, however, the annual murder count has fluctuated by as much as 50% compared with the year before, with 60 murders in 2002, followed by just 39 in 2003, 61 in 2004, and 73 in 2005. In 2008 there were 62 reported homicides.[134] Although the figures are nowhere near the high-water mark set in 1990, the aberrations in the murder rate have been unsettling for many Bostonians and have prompted discussion over whether the Boston Police Department should reevaluate its approach to fighting crime.[133][134][135] Demographic breakdown by zip code[edit] Income[edit] See also: List of Massachusetts locations by per capita income Data is from the 2008–2012 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates.[136][137][138] Rank ZIP Code (ZCTA) Per capita income Median household income Median family income Population Number of households 1 02110 (Financial District) $152,007 $123,795 $196,518 1,486 981 2 02199 (Prudential Center) $151,060 $107,159 $146,786 1,290 823 3 02210 (Fort Point) $93,078 $111,061 $223,411 1,905 1,088 4 02109 (North End) $88,921 $128,022 $162,045 4,277 2,190 5 02116 (Back Bay/Bay Village) $81,458 $87,630 $134,875 21,318 10,938 6 02108 (Beacon Hill/Financial District) $78,569 $95,753 $153,618 4,155 2,337 7 02114 (Beacon Hill/West End) $65,865 $79,734 $169,107 11,933 6,752 8 02111 (Chinatown/Financial District/Leather District) $56,716 $44,758 $88,333 7,616 3,390 9 02129 (Charlestown) $56,267 $89,105 $98,445 17,052 8,083 10 02467 (Chestnut Hill) $53,382 $113,952 $148,396 22,796 6,351 11 02113 (North End) $52,905 $64,413 $112,589 7,276 4,329 12 02132 (West Roxbury) $44,306 $82,421 $110,219 27,163 11,013 13 02118 (South End) $43,887 $50,000 $49,090 26,779 12,512 14 02130 (Jamaica Plain) $42,916 $74,198 $95,426 36,866 15,306 15 02127 (South Boston) $42,854 $67,012 $68,110 32,547 14,994 Massachusetts $35,485 $66,658 $84,380 6,560,595 2,525,694 Boston $33,589 $53,136 $63,230 619,662 248,704 Suffolk County $32,429 $52,700 $61,796 724,502 287,442 16 02135 (Brighton) $31,773 $50,291 $62,602 38,839 18,336 17 02131 (Roslindale) $29,486 $61,099 $70,598 30,370 11,282 United States $28,051 $53,046 $64,585 309,138,711 115,226,802 18 02136 (Hyde Park) $28,009 $57,080 $74,734 29,219 10,650 19 02134 (Allston) $25,319 $37,638 $49,355 20,478 8,916 20 02128 (East Boston) $23,450 $49,549 $49,470 41,680 14,965 21 02122 (Dorchester-Fields Corner) $23,432 $51,798 $50,246 25,437 8,216 22 02124 (Dorchester-Codman Square-Ashmont) $23,115 $48,329 $55,031 49,867 17,275 23 02125 (Dorchester-Uphams Corner-Savin Hill) $22,158 $42,298 $44,397 31,996 11,481 24 02163 (Allston-Harvard Business School) $21,915 $43,889 $91,190 1,842 562 25 02115 (Back Bay/Fenway-Kenmore) $21,654 $23,677 $50,303 29,178 9,958 26 02126 (Mattapan) $20,649 $43,532 $52,774 27,335 9,510 27 02215 (Fenway-Kenmore) $19,082 $30,823 $72,583 23,719 7,995 28 02119 (Roxbury) $18,998 $27,051 $35,311 24,237 9,769 29 02121 (Dorchester-Mount Bowdoin) $18,226 $30,419 $35,439 26,801 9,739 30 02120 (Mission Hill) $17,390 $32,367 $29,583 13,217 4,509 Religion[edit] Old South Church, a United Church of Christ congregation first organized in 1669 According to a 2014 study by the Pew Research Center, 57% of the population of the city identified themselves as Christians, with 25% professing attendance at a variety of churches that could be considered Protestant, and 29% professing Roman Catholic beliefs.[139][140] while 33% claim no religious affiliation. The same study says that other religions (including Judaism, Buddhism, Islam, and Hinduism) collectively make up about 10% of the population As of 2010 the Catholic Church had the highest number of adherents as a single denomination in the Boston-Cambridge-Newton Metro area, with more than two million members and 339 churches, followed by the Episcopal Church with 58,000 adherents in 160 churches. The United Church of Christ had 55,000 members and 213 churches.[141] The UCC is the successor of the city's Puritan religious traditions. Old South Church in Boston is one of the oldest congregations in the United States. It was organized in 1669 by dissenters from the First Church in Boston (1630). Notable past members include Samuel Adams, William Dawes, Benjamin Franklin, Samuel Sewall, and Phillis Wheatley. In 1773, Adams gave the signals from the Old South Meeting House that started the Boston Tea Party. Economy[edit] See also: Major companies in Greater Boston Distribution of the Boston metropolitan NECTA labor force, 2004 annual averages[34] A global city, Boston is placed among the top 30 most economically powerful cities in the world.[142] Encompassing $363 billion, the Greater Boston metropolitan area has the sixth-largest economy in the country and 12th-largest in the world.[143] Boston's colleges and universities have a significant effect on the regional economy. Boston attracts more than 350,000 college students from around the world, who contribute more than $4.8 billion annually to the city's economy.[144][145] The area's schools are major employers and attract industries to the city and surrounding region. The city is home to a number of technology companies and is a hub for biotechnology, with the Milken Institute rating Boston as the top life sciences cluster in the country.[146] Boston receives the highest absolute amount of annual funding from the National Institutes of Health of all cities in the United States.[147] The city is also considered highly innovative for a variety of reasons that include the presence of academia, access to venture capital, and the presence of many high-tech companies.[22][148] Tourism comprises a large part of Boston's economy, with 21.2 million domestic and international visitors spending $8.3 billion in 2011.[149] Because of Boston's status as a state capital and the regional home of federal agencies, law and government are another major component of the city's economy.[34] The city is a major seaport along the United States' East Coast and the oldest continuously operated industrial and fishing port in the Western Hemisphere.[150] Other important industries are financial services, especially mutual funds and insurance.[34] Boston-based Fidelity Investments helped popularize the mutual fund in the 1980s and has made Boston one of the top financial cities in the United States.[23][151] The city is home to the headquarters of Santander Bank, and Boston is a center for venture capital firms. State Street Corporation, which specializes in asset management and custody services, is based in the city. Boston is a printing and publishing center[152] — Houghton Mifflin Harcourt is headquartered within the city, along with Bedford-St. Martin's Press and Beacon Press. Pearson PLC publishing units also employ several hundred people in Boston. The city is home to three major convention centers—the Hynes Convention Center in the Back Bay, and the Seaport World Trade Center and Boston Convention and Exhibition Center on the South Boston waterfront.[153] Several major companies headquartered within Boston or nearby—especially along Route 128,[154] the center of the region's high-tech industry. In 2006 Boston and its metropolitan area ranked as the fourth-largest cybercity in the United States with 191,700 high-tech jobs.[155] Culture[edit] Main article: Culture in Boston See also: Annual events in Boston, List of arts organizations in Boston and Sites of interest in Boston Colonial style red brick building with a white cupola in an urban setting The Old State House, a museum on the Freedom Trail and the site of the Boston Massacre Hanover Street in the North End is known for its restaurants. Boston shares many cultural roots with greater New England, including a dialect of the non-rhotic Eastern New England accent known as Boston English,[156] and a regional cuisine with a large emphasis on seafood, salt, and dairy products.[157] Irish Americans are a major influence on Boston's politics and religious institutions. Boston also has its own collection of neologisms known as Boston slang.[158] In the nineteenth century, the Old Corner Bookstore became a gathering place for writers, including Emerson, Thoreau, and Margaret Fuller. Here James Russell Lowell printed the first editions of The Atlantic Monthly. Boston has been called the "Athens of America" for its literary culture, earning a reputation as "the intellectual capital of the United States."[159] In the nineteenth century, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Margaret Fuller, James Russell Lowell, and Henry Wadsworth Longfellow wrote in Boston. Some consider the Old Corner Bookstore, where these writers met and where The Atlantic Monthly was first published, to be "cradle of American literature.[160] In 1852, the Boston Public Library was founded as the first free library in the United States.[159] Boston's literary culture continues today thanks to the city's many universities and the Boston Book Festival. Symphony Hall, home of the Boston Symphony Orchestra Jordan Hall at the New England Conservatory Music is cherished in Boston. The Boston Symphony Orchestra is one of the "Big Five," a group of the greatest American orchestras, and the classical music magazine Gramophone called it one of the "world's best" orchestras.[161] Symphony Hall (located west of Back Bay) is home to the Boston Symphony Orchestra, (and the related Boston Youth Symphony Orchestra, which is the largest youth orchestra in the nation) and the Boston Pops Orchestra. The British newspaper The Guardian called Boston Symphony Hall "one of the top venues for classical music in the world," adding that "Symphony Hall in Boston was where science became an essential part of concert hall design."[162] Other concerts are held at the New England Conservatory's Jordan Hall. The Boston Ballet performs at the Boston Opera House. Other performing-arts organizations located in the city include the Boston Lyric Opera Company, Opera Boston, Boston Baroque (the first permanent Baroque orchestra in the US),[163] and the Handel and Haydn Society (one of the oldest choral companies in the United States).[164] The city is a center for contemporary classical music with a number of performing groups, several of which are associated with the city's conservatories and universities. These include the Boston Modern Orchestra Project and Boston Musica Viva.[163] Several theaters are located in or near the Theater District south of Boston Common, including the Cutler Majestic Theatre, Citi Performing Arts Center, the Colonial Theater, and the Orpheum Theatre.[165] There are several major annual events such as First Night, which occurs on New Year's Eve, the Boston Early Music Festival, the annual Boston Arts Festival at Christopher Columbus Waterfront Park, and Italian summer feasts in the North End honoring Catholic saints.[166] The city is the site of several events during the Fourth of July period. They include the week-long Harborfest festivities[167] and a Boston Pops concert accompanied by fireworks on the banks of the Charles River.[168] Gray stone classical building with columns and art banners on the central façade Museum of Fine Arts Because of the city's prominent role in the American Revolution, several historic sites relating to that period are preserved as part of the Boston National Historical Park. Many are found along the Freedom Trail, which is marked by a red line of bricks embedded in the ground. The city is also home to several art museums, including the Museum of Fine Arts and the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum.[169] The Institute of Contemporary Art is housed in a contemporary building designed by Diller Scofidio + Renfro in the Seaport District.[170] The University of Massachusetts Boston campus on Columbia Point houses the John F. Kennedy Library. The Boston Athenaeum (one of the oldest independent libraries in the United States),[171] Boston Children's Museum, Bull & Finch Pub (whose building is known from the television show Cheers),[172] Museum of Science, and the New England Aquarium are within the city. Boston has been a noted religious center from its earliest days. The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Boston serves nearly 300 parishes and is based in the Cathedral of the Holy Cross (1875) in the South End, while the Episcopal Diocese of Massachusetts, with the Cathedral Church of St. Paul (1819) as its episcopal seat, serves just under 200 congregations. Unitarian Universalism has its headquarters on Beacon Hill. The Christian Scientists are headquartered in Back Bay at the Mother Church (1894). The oldest church in Boston is First Church in Boston, founded in 1630.[173] King's Chapel, the city's first Anglican church, was founded in 1686 and converted to Unitarianism in 1785. Other churches include Christ Church (better known as Old North Church, 1723), the oldest church building in the city, Trinity Church (1733), Park Street Church (1809), Old South Church (1874), Jubilee Christian Church and Basilica and Shrine of Our Lady of Perpetual Help on Mission Hill (1878).[174] Sports[edit] Main article: Sports in Boston Boston has teams in the four major North American professional sports leagues plus Major League Soccer, and has won 36 championships in these leagues, As of 2014. It is one of six cities (along with Chicago, Detroit, Los Angeles, New York and Philadelphia) to have won championships in all four major sports. It has been suggested[175][176][177] that Boston is the new "TitleTown, USA", as the city's professional sports teams have won nine championships since 2001: Patriots (2001, 2003, 2004, and 2014), Red Sox (2004, 2007, and 2013), Celtics (2008), and Bruins (2011). This love of sports has made Boston the United States Olympic Committee's choice to bid to hold the 2024 Summer Olympic Games, but the city cited financial concerns when it withdrew its bid on July 27, 2015.[178] Fenway Park, the oldest professional baseball stadium still in use The Boston Red Sox, a founding member of the American League of Major League Baseball in 1901, play their home games at Fenway Park, near Kenmore Square in the city's Fenway section. Built in 1912, it is the oldest sports arena or stadium in active use in the United States among the four major professional American sports leagues, encompassing Major League Baseball, the National Football League, National Basketball Association, and the National Hockey League.[179] Boston was the site of the first game of the first modern World Series, in 1903. The series was played between the AL Champion Boston Americans and the NL champion Pittsburgh Pirates.[180][181] Persistent reports that the team was known in 1903 as the "Boston Pilgrims" appear to be unfounded.[182] Boston's first professional baseball team was the Red Stockings, one of the charter members of the National Association in 1871, and of the National League in 1876. The team played under that name until 1883, under the name Beaneaters until 1911, and under the name Braves from 1912 until they moved to Milwaukee after the 1952 season. Since 1966 they have played in Atlanta as the Atlanta Braves.[183] Professional basketball game between the Celtics and Timberwolves in a crowded arena The Celtics play at the TD Garden The TD Garden, formerly called the FleetCenter and built to replace the old, since-demolished Boston Garden, is adjoined to North Station and is the home of two major league teams: the Boston Bruins of the National Hockey League and the Boston Celtics of the National Basketball Association. The arena seats 18,624 for basketball games and 17,565 for ice hockey games. The Bruins were the first American member of the National Hockey League and an Original Six franchise.[184] The Boston Celtics were founding members of the Basketball Association of America, one of the two leagues that merged to form the NBA.[185] The Celtics have the distinction of having won more championships than any other NBA team, with seventeen.[186] While they have played in suburban Foxborough since 1971, the New England Patriots of the National Football League were founded in 1960 as the Boston Patriots, changing their name after relocating. The team won the Super Bowl after the 2001, 2003, 2004, and 2014 seasons.[187] They share Gillette Stadium with the New England Revolution of Major League Soccer. The Boston Breakers of Women's Professional Soccer, which formed in 2009, play their home games at Dilboy Stadium in Somerville.[188] Harvard Stadium, the first collegiate athletic stadium built in the U.S. The area's many colleges and universities are active in college athletics. Four NCAA Division I members play in the city—Boston College, Boston University, Harvard University, and Northeastern University. Of the four, only Boston College participates in college football at the highest level, the Football Bowl Subdivision. Harvard participates in the second-highest level, the Football Championship Subdivision. One of the best known sporting events in the city is the Boston Marathon, the 26.2-mile (42.2 km) race which is the world's oldest annual marathon,[189] run on Patriots' Day in April. On April 15, 2013, two explosions killed three people and injured hundreds at the marathon.[72] Another major annual event is the Head of the Charles Regatta, held in October.[190] Parks and recreation[edit] City skyline with a body of water in the background and a green park in the foreground Boston Common seen from the Prudential Tower Boston Common, located near the Financial District and Beacon Hill, is the oldest public park in the United States.[191] Along with the adjacent Boston Public Garden, it is part of the Emerald Necklace, a string of parks designed by Frederick Law Olmsted to encircle the city. The Emerald Necklace includes Jamaica Pond, Boston's largest body of freshwater, and Franklin Park, the city's largest park and home of the Franklin Park Zoo.[192] Another major park is the Esplanade, located along the banks of the Charles River. The Hatch Shell, an outdoor concert venue, is located adjacent to the Charles River Esplanade. Other parks are scattered throughout the city, with the major parks and beaches located near Castle Island; in Charlestown; and along the Dorchester, South Boston, and East Boston shorelines.[193] Boston's park system is well-reputed nationally. In its 2013 ParkScore ranking, The Trust for Public Land reported that Boston was tied with Sacramento and San Francisco for having the third-best park system among the 50 most populous US cities.[194] ParkScore ranks city park systems by a formula that analyzes the city's median park size, park acres as percent of city area, the percent of residents within a half-mile of a park, spending of park services per resident, and the number of playgrounds per 10,000 residents. Government[edit] See also: Boston City Hall, Boston Emergency Medical Services, Boston Finance Commission, Boston Fire Department, Boston Police Department, List of mayors of Boston and List of members of Boston City Council Red brick building with white columns on the façade and a gold dome on the top The Massachusetts State House, seat of the Massachusetts state government, on Beacon Hill Boston City Hall, built in 1968, is a prominent example of the Brutalist architectural style. Boston has a strong mayor – council government system in which the mayor (elected every fourth year) has extensive executive power. Marty Walsh became Mayor in January 2014, his predecessor Thomas Menino's twenty-year tenure having been the longest in the city's history.[195] The Boston City Council is elected every two years; there are nine district seats, and four citywide "at-large" seats.[196] The School Committee, which oversees the Boston Public Schools, is appointed by the mayor.[197] In addition to city government, numerous commissions and state authorities—including the Massachusetts Department of Conservation and Recreation, the Boston Public Health Commission, the Massachusetts Water Resources Authority (MWRA), and the Massachusetts Port Authority (Massport)—play a role in the life of Bostonians. As the capital of Massachusetts, Boston plays a major role in state politics. The city has several federal facilities, including the John F. Kennedy Federal Office Building, the Thomas P. O'Neill Federal Building,[198] the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit, the United States District Court for the District of Massachusetts, and the Federal Reserve Bank of Boston. Federally, Boston is split between two congressional districts. The northern three-fourths of the city is in the 7th district, represented by Mike Capuano since 1998. The southern fourth is in the 8th district, represented by Stephen Lynch.[199] Both are Democrats; a Republican has not represented a significant portion of Boston in over a century. The state's senior member of the United States Senate is Democrat Elizabeth Warren, first elected in 2012. The state's junior member of the United States Senate is Democrat Ed Markey, who was elected in 2013 to succeed John Kerry after Kerry's appointment and confirmation as the United States Secretary of State. Voter registration and party enrollment As of October 2012[200] Party Number of voters Percentage Democratic 211,257 54.58% Republican 25,903 6.69% Green-Rainbow 686 0.17% Unaffiliated 147,813 38.19% Total 387,040 100% Education[edit] Primary and secondary education[edit] Three-story brick building façade with three white columns surrounding a brown wooden door located on the ground floor Boston Latin School, established in 1635, is the oldest public high school in the US. The Boston Public Schools enrolls 57,000 students attending 145 schools, including the renowned Boston Latin Academy, John D. O'Bryant School of Math & Science, and Boston Latin School. The Boston Latin School, established 1635, is the oldest public high school in the US; Boston also operates the United States' second oldest public high school, and its oldest public elementary school.[19] The system's students are 35% Black or African American, 40% Hispanic or Latino, 13% White, and 9% Asian.[201] There are private, parochial, and charter schools as well, and approximately 3,300 minority students attend participating suburban schools through the Metropolitan Educational Opportunity Council.[202] Higher education[edit] See also: List of colleges and universities in metropolitan Boston Map of Boston area universities MIT Building 10 and the Great Dome, Cambridge Massachusetts Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) is often cited as among the world's top universities. Some of the most famous universities in the United States are located in the Boston area. Four members of the Association of American Universities are in Greater Boston (more than any other metropolitan area): Harvard University, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston University, and Brandeis University.[203] Hospitals, universities, and research institutions in Greater Boston received more than $1.77 billion in National Institutes of Health grants in 2013, more money than any other American metropolitan area.[204] Greater Boston has more than 100 colleges and universities, with 250,000 students enrolled in Boston and Cambridge alone.[205] Its largest private universities include Boston University (the city's fourth-largest employer)[206] with its main campus along Commonwealth Avenue and a medical campus in the South End; Northeastern University in the Fenway area;[207] Suffolk University near Beacon Hill, which includes law school and business school;[208] and Boston College, which straddles the Boston (Brighton)–Newton border.[209] Boston's only public university is the University of Massachusetts Boston, on Columbia Point in Dorchester. Roxbury Community College and Bunker Hill Community College are the city's two public community colleges. Altogether, Boston's colleges and universities employ over 42,600 people, accounting for nearly 7 percent of the city's workforce.[210] Harvard Business School, one of the country's top business schools Smaller private schools include Babson College, Bentley University, Boston Architectural College, Emmanuel College, Fisher College, MGH Institute of Health Professions, Massachusetts College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Simmons College, Wheelock College, Wentworth Institute of Technology, New England School of Law (originally established as America's first all female law school),[211] and Emerson College.[212] Metropolitan Boston is home to several conservatories and art schools, including Lesley University College of Art and Design, Massachusetts College of Art, the School of the Museum of Fine Arts, New England Institute of Art, New England School of Art and Design (Suffolk University), Longy School of Music of Bard College, and the New England Conservatory (the oldest independent conservatory in the United States).[213] Other conservatories include the Boston Conservatory and Berklee College of Music, which has made Boston an important city for jazz music.[214] Several universities located outside Boston have a major presence in the city. Harvard University, the nation's oldest institute of higher education, is centered across the Charles River in Cambridge but has the majority of its land holdings and a substantial amount of its educational activities in Boston. Its business, medical, dental, and public health schools are located in Boston's Allston and Longwood neighborhoods. Harvard has plans for additional expansion into Allston.[215] The Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), which originated in Boston and was long known as "Boston Tech", moved across the river to Cambridge in 1916.[216] Tufts University, whose main campus is north of the city in Somerville and Medford, locates its medical and dental school in Boston's Chinatown at Tufts Medical Center, a 451-bed academic medical institution that is home to both a full-service hospital for adults and the Floating Hospital for Children.[217] Media[edit] Main article: Media in Boston Newspapers[edit] The Boston Globe and the Boston Herald are two of the city's major daily newspapers. The city is also served by other publications such as Boston magazine, The Improper Bostonian, DigBoston, and the Boston edition of Metro. The Christian Science Monitor, headquartered in Boston, was formerly a worldwide daily newspaper but ended publication of daily print editions in 2009, switching to continuous online and weekly magazine format publications.[218] The Boston Globe also releases a teen publication to the city's public high schools, called Teens in Print or T.i.P., which is written by the city's teens and delivered quarterly within the school year.[219] The city's growing Latino population has given rise to a number of local and regional Spanish-language newspapers. These include El Planeta (owned by the former publisher of The Boston Phoenix), El Mundo, and La Semana. Siglo21, with its main offices in nearby Lawrence, is also widely distributed.[220] Various LGBT publications serve the city's large LGBT (lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender) community such as The Rainbow Times, the only minority and lesbian-owned LGBT newsmagazine. Founded in 2006, The Rainbow Times is now based out of Boston, but serves all of New England.[221] Radio and television[edit] Boston is the largest broadcasting market in New England, with the radio market being the 11th largest in the United States.[222] Several major AM stations include talk radio WRKO, sports/talk station WEEI, and CBS Radio WBZ.[223] WBZ (AM) broadcasts a news radio format. A variety of commercial FM radio formats serve the area, as do NPR stations WBUR and WGBH. College and university radio stations include WERS (Emerson), WHRB (Harvard), WUMB (UMass Boston), WMBR (MIT), WZBC (Boston College), WMFO (Tufts University), WBRS (Brandeis University), WTBU (Boston University, campus and web only), WRBB (Northeastern University) and WMLN-FM (Curry College). The Boston television DMA, which also includes Manchester, New Hampshire, is the 8th largest in the United States.[224] The city is served by stations representing every major American network, including WBZ-TV and its sister station WSBK-TV (the former a CBS O&O, the latter an MyNetwork TV affiliate), WCVB-TV (ABC), WHDH (NBC), WFXT (Fox), and WLVI (The CW). The city is also home to PBS station WGBH-TV, a major producer of PBS programs,[225] which also operates WGBX. Spanish-language television networks, including MundoFox (WFXZ-CD), Univision (WUNI), Telemundo (WNEU), and Telefutura (WUTF-DT), have a presence in the region, with WNEU and WUTF serving as network owned-and-operated stations. Most of the area's television stations have their transmitters in nearby Needham and Newton along the Route 128 corridor.[226] Six Boston television stations are carried by Canadian satellite television provider Bell TV and by cable television providers in Canada. Film[edit] Films have been made in Boston since as early as 1903, and it continues to be both a popular setting and a popular site for location shooting.[227][228] Healthcare[edit] See also: List of hospitals in Boston Harvard Medical School, one of the most prestigious medical schools in the world The Longwood Medical and Academic Area, adjacent to the Fenway district, is home to a large number of medical and research facilities, including Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Children's Hospital Boston, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Joslin Diabetes Center, and the Massachusetts College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences.[229] Prominent medical facilities, including Massachusetts General Hospital, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary and Spaulding Rehabilitation Hospital are located in the Beacon Hill area. St. Elizabeth's Medical Center is in Brighton Center of the city's Brighton neighborhood. New England Baptist Hospital is in Mission Hill. The city has Veterans Affairs medical centers in the Jamaica Plain and West Roxbury neighborhoods.[230] The Boston Public Health Commission, an agency of the Massachusetts government, oversees health concerns for city residents.[231] Boston EMS provides pre-hospital emergency medical services to residents and visitors. Many of Boston's medical facilities are associated with universities. The facilities in the Longwood Medical and Academic Area and in Massachusetts General Hospital are affiliated with Harvard Medical School.[232] Tufts Medical Center (formerly Tufts-New England Medical Center), located in the southern portion of the Chinatown neighborhood, is affiliated with Tufts University School of Medicine. Boston Medical Center, located in the South End neighborhood, is the primary teaching facility for the Boston University School of Medicine as well as the largest trauma center in the Boston area;[233] it was formed by the merger of Boston University Hospital and Boston City Hospital, which was the first municipal hospital in the United States.[234] Infrastructure[edit] Main article: Infrastructure in Boston Transportation[edit] Main article: Transportation in Boston South Station, the busiest rail hub in New England, is a terminus of Amtrak and numerous MBTA rail lines. A silver and red rapid transit train departing an above-ground station An MBTA Red Line train departing Boston for Cambridge. Bostonians depend heavily on public transit, with over 1.3 million Bostonians riding the city's buses and trains daily (2013).[235] Logan Airport, located in East Boston and operated by the Massachusetts Port Authority (Massport), is Boston's principal airport.[236] Nearby general aviation airports are Beverly Municipal Airport to the north, Hanscom Field to the west, and Norwood Memorial Airport to the south. Massport also operates several major facilities within the Port of Boston, including a cruise ship terminal and facilities to handle bulk and container cargo in South Boston, and other facilities in Charlestown and East Boston.[237] Leonard P. Zakim Bunker Hill Memorial Bridge crosses the Charles River from Downtown Boston Downtown Boston's streets grew organically, so they do not form a planned grid,[238] unlike those in later-developed Back Bay, East Boston, the South End, and South Boston. Boston is the eastern terminus of I-90, which in Massachusetts runs along the Massachusetts Turnpike. The elevated portion of the Central Artery, which carried most of the through traffic in downtown Boston, was replaced with the O'Neill Tunnel during the Big Dig, substantially completed in early 2006. With nearly a third of Bostonians using public transit for their commute to work, Boston has the fifth-highest rate of public transit usage in the country.[239] Boston's subway system, the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority (MBTA—known as the "T") operates the oldest underground rapid transit system in the Americas, and is the fourth-busiest rapid transit system in the country,[20] with 65.5 miles (105 km) of track on four lines.[240] The MBTA also operates busy bus and commuter rail networks, and water shuttles.[240] Amtrak's Northeast Corridor and Chicago lines originate at South Station, which serves as a major intermodal transportation hub, and stop at Back Bay. Fast Northeast Corridor trains, which serve New York City, Washington, D.C., and points in between, also stop at Route 128 Station in the southwestern suburbs of Boston.[241] Meanwhile, Amtrak's Downeaster service to Maine originates at North Station,[242] despite the current lack of a dedicated passenger rail link between the two railhubs, other than the "T" subway lines. Nicknamed "The Walking City", Boston hosts more pedestrian commuters than do other comparably populated cities. Owing to factors such as the compactness of the city and large student population, 13 percent of the population commutes by foot, making it the highest percentage of pedestrian commuters in the country out of the major American cities.[243] In 2011, Walk Score ranked Boston the third most walkable city in the United States.[244][245] As of 2015, Walk Score still ranks Boston as the third most walkable US city, with a Walk Score of 80, a Transit Score of 75, and a Bike Score of 70.[246] Between 1999 and 2006, Bicycling magazine named Boston three times as one of the worst cities in the US for cycling;[247] regardless, it has one of the highest rates of bicycle commuting.[248] In 2008, as a consequence of improvements made to bicycling conditions within the city, the same magazine put Boston on its "Five for the Future" list as a "Future Best City" for biking,[249][250] and Boston's bicycle commuting percentage increased from 1% in 2000 to 2.1% in 2009.[251] The bikeshare program called Hubway launched in late July 2011,[252] logging more than 140,000 rides before the close of its first season.[253] The neighboring municipalities of Cambridge, Somerville, and Brookline joined the Hubway program in summer 2012.[254] Notable people[edit] Main article: List of people from Boston Gallery[edit] Boston Public Library Boston Public Library Horticultural Hall Granary Burying Ground Paul Revere House (1680) Faneuil Hall Faneuil Hall Strasbourg (/ È s t r æ z b \ r a / , F r e n c h p r o n u n c i a t i o n : [ s t � a z . b u � , s t � a s . b u � ] ; G e r m a n : S t r a ß b u r g , [ È ƒ t � a Ð s b Š P / k ] ) i s t h e c a p i t a l a n d p r i n c i p a l c i t y o f t h e A l s a c e r e g i o n i n n o r t h e a s t e r n F r a n c e a n d i s t h e o f f i c i a l s e a t o f t h e E u r o p e a n P a r l i a m e n t . L o c a t e d c l o s e t o t h e b o r d e r w ith Germany, it is the capital of the Bas-Rhin département. The city and the region of Alsace were historically Alemannic-speaking, hence the city's Germanic name.[5] In 2006, the city proper had 272,975 inhabitants and its urban community 467,375 inhabitants. With 759,868 inhabitants in 2010, Strasbourg's metropolitan area (only the part of the metropolitan area on French territory) is the ninth largest in France. The transnational Eurodistrict Strasbourg-Ortenau had a population of 884,988 inhabitants in 2008.[6] Strasbourg is the seat of several European institutions, such as the Council of Europe (with its European Court of Human Rights, its European Directorate for the Quality of Medicines and its European Audiovisual Observatory) and the Eurocorps, as well as the European Parliament and the European Ombudsman of the European Union. The city is also the seat of the Central Commission for Navigation on the Rhine and the International Institute of Human Rights.[7] Strasbourg's historic city centre, the Grande Île (Grand Island), was classified a World Heritage site by UNESCO in 1988, the first time such an honour was placed on an entire city centre. Strasbourg is immersed in the Franco-German culture and although violently disputed throughout history, has been a bridge of unity between France and Germany for centuries, especially through the University of Strasbourg, currently the second largest in France, and the coexistence of Catholic and Protestant culture. The largest Islamic place of worship in France, the Strasbourg Grand Mosque, was inaugurated by French Interior Minister Manuel Valls on 27 September 2012.[8] Economically, Strasbourg is an important centre of manufacturing and engineering, as well as a hub of road, rail, and river transportation. The port of Strasbourg is the second largest on the Rhine after Duisburg, Germany.[9] Contents [hide] 1 Etymology and Names 2 Geography 2.1 Location 2.2 Climate 3 History 3.1 Prehistory 3.2 From Romans to Renaissance 3.2.1 Argentoratum 3.2.2 Imperial city 3.3 From Thirty Years' War to First World War 3.4 1918 to the present 4 Districts 5 Main sights 5.1 Architecture 5.2 Parks 5.3 Museums 5.3.1 Fine art museums 5.3.2 Other museums 5.3.3 University museums 6 Demographics 6.1 Population growth 6.2 Population composition 7 Culture 7.1 Events 8 Education 8.1 Universities and schools 9 Libraries 9.1 Incunabula 10 Transportation 11 European role 11.1 Institutions 11.2 Eurodistrict 12 Sports 13 Notable people 14 Twin towns and sister cities 15 In popular culture 15 . 1 I n f i l m 1 5 . 2 I n l i t e r a t u r e 1 5 . 3 I n m u s i c 1 6 R e f e r e n c e s 1 7 E x t e r n a l l i n k s E t y m o l o g y a n d N a m e s [ e d i t ] T h e c i t y ' s G a l l i c i z e d n a m e ( L o w e r A l s a t i a n : S t r o s s b u r i , [ È ƒ d % r T Ð s b % u r i ] ; G e r m a n : S t r a ß b u r g , [ È ƒ t � a Ð s b Š P / k ] ) i s o f G e r m a n i c o r i g i n a n d m e a n s " T o w n ( a t t h e crossing) of roads". The modern Stras- is cognate to the German Straße and English street, all of which are derived from Latin strata ("paved road"), while -bourg is cognate to the German Burg and English borough, all of which are derived from Proto-Germanic *burgz ("hill fort, fortress"). Geography[edit] Location[edit] Strasbourg seen from Spot Satellite Strasbourg is situated on the eastern border of France with Germany. This border is formed by the River Rhine, which also forms the eastern border of the modern city, facing across the river to the German town Kehl. The historic core of Strasbourg however lies on the Grande Île in the River Ill, which here flows parallel to, and roughly 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) from, the Rhine. The natural courses of the two rivers eventually join some distance downstream of Strasbourg, although several artificial waterways now connect them within the city. The city lies in the Upper Rhine Plain, at between 132 metres (433 ft) and 151 metres (495 ft) above sea level, with the upland areas of the Vosges Mountains some 20 km (12 mi) to the west and the Black Forest 25 km (16 mi) to the east. This section of the Rhine valley is a major axis of north-south travel, with river traffic on the Rhine itself, and major roads and railways paralleling it on both banks. The city is some 400 kilometres (250 mi) east of Paris. The mouth of the Rhine lies approximately 450 kilometres (280 mi) to the north, or 650 kilometres (400 mi) as the river flows, whilst the head of navigation in Basel is some 100 kilometres (62 mi) to the south, or 150 kilometres (93 mi) by river. Climate[edit] Climate diagram of Strasbourg In spite of its position far inland, Strasbourg's climate is classified as Oceanic (Köppen climate classification Cfb), with warm, relatively sunny summers and cold, overcast winters. Precipitation is elevated from mid-spring to the end of summer, but remains largely constant throughout the year, totaling 631.4 mm (24.9 in) annually. On average, snow falls 30 days per year. The hig h e s t t e m p e r a t u r e e v e r r e c o r d e d w a s 3 8 . 5 ° C ( 1 0 1 . 3 ° F ) i n A u g u s t 2 0 0 3 , d u r i n g t h e 2 0 0 3 E u r o p e a n h e a t w a v e . T h e l o w e s t t e m p e r a t u r e e v e r r e c o r d e d w a s "2 3 . 4 ° C ( "1 0 . 1 ° F ) i n D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 8 . S t r a s b o u r g ' s l o c a t i o n i n t h e R h i n e v a l l e y , s h e l t e r e d f r o m t h e d o m i n a n t winds by the Vosges and Black Forest mountains, results in poor natural ventilation, making Strasbourg one of the most atmospherically polluted cities of France.[10][11] Nonetheless, the progressive disappearance of heavy industry on both banks of the Rhine, as well as effective measures of traffic regulation in and around the city have reduced air pollution.[12] [hide]Climate data for Strasbourg, Bas-Rhin, France (1981–2010 averages) Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high °C (°F) 17.5 (63.5) 21.1 (70) 25.7 (78.3) 30.0 (86) 33.4 (92.1) 37.0 (98.6) 38.3 (100.9) 38.5 (101.3) 33.4 (92.1) 29.1 (84.4) 22.1 (71.8) 18.3 (64.9) 38.5 (101.3) Average high °C (°F) 4.5 (40.1) 6.4 (43.5) 11.4 (52.5) 15.7 (60.3) 20.2 (68.4) 23.4 (74.1) 25.7 (78.3) 25.4 (77.7) 21.0 (69.8) 15.3 (59.5) 8.8 (47.8) 5.2 (41.4) 15.3 (59.5) Daily mean °C (°F) 1.8 (35.2) 2.9 (37.2) 7 (45) 10.5 (50.9) 15 (59) 18.1 (64.6) 20.1 (68.2) 19.8 (67.6) 15.8 (60.4) 11.2 (52.2) 5.8 (42.4) 2.8 (37) 11 (52) Average low °C (°F) "0 . 8 ( 3 0 . 6 ) "0 . 6 ( 3 0 . 9 ) 2 . 5 ( 3 6 . 5 ) 5 . 2 ( 4 1 . 4 ) 9 . 8 ( 4 9 . 6 ) 1 2 . 8 ( 5 5 ) 1 4 . 5 ( 5 8 . 1 ) 1 4 . 1 ( 5 7 . 4 ) 1 0 . 6 ( 5 1 . 1 ) 7 . 1 ( 4 4 . 8 ) 2 . 8 ( 3 7 ) 0 . 3 ( 3 2 . 5 ) 6 . 6 ( 4 3 . 9 ) R e c o r d l o w ° C ( ° F ) "2 3 . 6 ( "1 0 . 5 ) "2 2 . 3 ( "8 . 1 ) "1 6 . 7 ( 1 . 9 ) "5 . 6 ( 2 1 . 9 ) "2 . 4 ( 2 7 . 7 ) 1 . 1 ( 3 4 ) 4 . 9 ( 4 0 . 8 ) 4 . 8 ( 4 0 . 6 ) "1 . 3 ( 2 9 . 7 ) "7 . 6 ( 1 8 . 3 ) "1 0 . 8 ( 1 2 . 6 ) "2 3 . 4 ( "1 0 . 1 ) "2 3 . 6 ( "1 0 . 5 ) A v e r a g e p r e c i p i t a t i o n m m ( i n c h e s ) 3 2 . 2 ( 1 . 2 6 8 ) 3 4 . 5 ( 1 . 3 5 8 ) 4 2 . 8 ( 1 . 6 8 5 ) 4 5 . 9 ( 1 . 8 0 7 ) 8 1 . 9 ( 3 . 2 2 4 ) 7 1 . 6 ( 2 . 8 1 9 ) 7 2 . 7 ( 2 . 8 6 2 ) 6 1 . 4 ( 2 . 4 1 7 ) 6 3 . 5 ( 2 . 5 ) 6 1 . 5 ( 2 . 4 2 1 ) 4 7 . 0 ( 1 . 8 5 ) 5 0 . 0 ( 1 . 9 6 9 ) 6 65.0 (26.181) Average precipitation days 8.4 8.1 9.1 9.2 11.5 10.7 10.8 9.9 8.6 9.5 9.3 9.8 114.9 Average snowy days 7.8 6.7 4.0 1.5 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.4 6.3 29.8 Average relative humidity (%) 86 82 76 72 73 74 72 76 80 85 86 86 79 Mean monthly sunshine hours 58.1 83.8 134.8 180.0 202.5 223.8 228.6 219.6 164.5 98.7 55.3 43.1 1,692.7 Source #1: Meteo France[13][14] Source #2: Infoclimat.fr (humidity, snowy days 1961–1990)[15] History[edit] See also: Timeline of Strasbourg It has been suggested that this section be split into a new article titled History of Strasbourg. (Discuss) (November 2015) Prehistory[edit] The first traces of human occupation in the environs of Strasbourg go back many thousands of years.[16] Neolithic, bronze age and iron age artifacts have been uncovered by archeological excavations. It was permanently settled by proto-Celts around 1300 BC. Towards the end of the third century BC, it developed into a Celtic township with a market called "Argentorate". Drainage works converted the stilthouses to houses built on dry land.[17] From Romans to Renaissance[edit] Argentoratum[edit] Main article: Argentoratum The Romans under Nero Claudius Drusus established a military outpost belonging to the Germania Superior Roman province at Strasbourg's current location, and named it Argentoratum. (Hence the town is commonly called Argentina in medieval Latin.[18]) The name "Argentoratum" was first mentioned in 12 BC and the city celebrated its 2,000th birthday in 1988. "Argentorate" as the toponym of the Gaulish settlement preceded it before being Latinized, but it is not known by how long. The Roman camp was destroyed by fire and rebuilt six times between the first and the fifth centuries AD: in 70, 97, 235, 355, in the last quarter of the fourth century, and in the early years of the fifth century. It was under Trajan and after the fire of 97 that Argentoratum received its most extended and fortified shape. From the year 90 on, the Legio VIII Augusta was permanently stationed in the Roman camp of Argentoratum. It then included a cavalry section and covered an area of approximately 20 hectares. Other Roman legions temporarily stationed in Argentoratum were the Legio XIV Gemina and the Legio XXI Rapax, the latter during the reign of Nero. The centre of Argentoratum proper was situated on the Grande Île (Cardo: current Rue du Dôme, Decumanus: current Rue des Hallebardes). The outline of the Roman "castrum" is visible in the street pattern in the Grande Ile. Many Roman artifacts have also been found along the current Route des Romains, the road that led to Argentoratum, in the suburb of Kœnigshoffen. This was where the largest burial places were situated, as well as the densest concentration of civilian dwelling places and commerces next to the camp. Among the most outstanding finds in Kœnigshoffen were (found in 1911–12) the fragments of a grand Mithraeum that had been shattered by early Christians in the fourth century. From the fourth century, Strasbourg was the seat of the Bishopric of Strasbourg (made an Archbishopric in 1988). Archaeological excavations below the current Église Saint-Étienne in 1948 and 1956 unearthed the apse of a church dating back to the late fourth or early fifth century, considered to be the oldest church in Alsace. It is supposed that this was the first seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Strasbourg. The Alemanni fought the Battle of Argentoratum against Rome in 357. They were defeated by Julian, later Emperor of Rome, and their King Chonodomarius was taken prisoner. On 2 January 366, the Alemanni crossed the frozen Rhine in large numbers to invade the Roman Empire. Early in the fifth century, the Alemanni appear to have crossed the Rhine, conquered, and then settled what is today Alsace and a large part of Switzerland. Imperial city[edit] Imperial City of Strasbourg Reichsstadt Straßburg (de) Ville libre de Strasbourg (fr) Free Imperial City of the Holy Roman Empire �! 1 2 6 2 1 6 8 1 ’! C a p i t a l S t r a s b o u r g G o v e r n m e n t R e p u b l i c H i s t o r i c a l e r a M i d d l e A g e s " C i t y f o u n d e d 1 2 B C " A c q u i r e d b y t h e E m p i r e 9 2 3 1 2 6 2 " G a i n e d R e i c h s f r e i h e i t 1 2 6 2 " S t r a ß b u r g e r R e v o l u t i o n 1 3 3 2 " A n n e x e d b y F r a n c e 1 6 8 1 " A n n e x a t i o n r e c o g n i s e d by the Holy Roman Empire 1697 Modern copy of the seal of Strasbourg from 1201. Strasbourg as seen in 1493 Strasbourg as seen in 1644 In the fifth century Strasbourg was occupied successively by Alemanni, Huns, and Franks. In the ninth century it was commonly known as Strazburg in the local language, as documented in 842 by the Oaths of Strasbourg. This trilingual text contains, alongside texts in Latin and Old High German (teudisca lingua), the oldest written variety of Gallo-Romance (lingua romana) clearly distinct from Latin, the ancestor of Old French. The town was also called Stratisburgum or Strateburgus in Latin, from which later came Strossburi in Alsatian and Straßburg in Standard German, and then Strasbourg in French. The Oaths of Strasbourg is considered as marking the birth of the two countries of France and Germany with the division of the Carolingian Empire.[19] A major commercial centre, the town came under the control of the Holy Roman Empire in 923, through the homage paid by the Duke of Lorraine to German King Henry I. The early history of Strasbourg consists of a long conflict between its bishop and its citizens. The citizens emerged victorious after the Battle of Oberhausbergen in 1262, when King Philip of Swabia granted the city the status of an Imperial Free City. Around 1200, Gottfried von Straßburg wrote the Middle High German courtly romance Tristan, which is regarded, alongside Wolfram von Eschenbach's Parzival and the Nibelungenlied, as one of great narrative masterpieces of the German Middle Ages. A revolution in 1332 resulted in a broad-based city government with participation of the guilds, and Strasbourg declared itself a free republic. The deadly bubonic plague of 1348 was followed on 14 February 1349 by one of the first and worst pogroms in pre-modern history: over a thousand Jews were publicly burnt to death, with the remainder of the Jewish population being expelled from the city.[20] Until the end of the 18th century, Jews were forbidden to remain in town after 10 pm. The time to leave the city was signalled by a municipal herald blowing the Grüselhorn (see below, Museums, Musée historique);.[21] A special tax, the Pflastergeld (pavement money), was furthermore to be paid for any horse that a Jew would ride or bring into the city while allowed to.[22] Construction on Strasbourg Cathedral began in the twelfth century, and it was completed in 1439 (though, of the towers, only the north tower was built), becoming the World's Tallest Building, surpassing the Great Pyramid of Giza. A few years later, Johannes Gutenberg created the first European moveable type printing press in Strasbourg. In July 1518, an incident known as the Dancing Plague of 1518 struck residents of Strasbourg. Around 400 people were afflicted with dancing mania and danced constantly for weeks, most of them eventually dying from heart attack, stroke or exhaustion. In the 1520s during the Protestant Reformation, the city, under the political guidance of Jacob Sturm von Sturmeck and the spiritual guidance of Martin Bucer embraced the religious teachings of Martin Luther. Their adherents established a Gymnasium, headed by Johannes Sturm, made into a University in the following century. The city first followed the Tetrapolitan Confession, and then the Augsburg Confession. Protestant iconoclasm caused much destruction to churches and cloisters, notwithstanding that Luther himself opposed such a practice. Strasbourg was a centre of humanist scholarship and early book-printing in the Holy Roman Empire, and its intellectual and political influence contributed much to the establishment of Protestantism as an accepted denomination in the southwest of Germany. (John Calvin spent several years as a political refugee in the city). The Strasbourg Councillor Sturm and guildmaster Matthias represented the city at the Imperial Diet of Speyer (1529), where their protest led to the schism of the Catholic Church and the evolution of Protestantism. Together with four other free cities, Strasbourg presented the confessio tetrapolitana as its Protestant book of faith at the Imperial Diet of Augsburg in 1530, where the slightly different Augsburg Confession was also handed over to Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. After the reform of the Imperial constitution in the early sixteenth century and the establishment of Imperial Circles, Strasbourg was part of the Upper Rhenish Circle, a corporation of Imperial estates in the southwest of Holy Roman Empire, mainly responsible for maintaining troops, supervising coining, and ensuring public security. After the invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg around 1440, the first printing offices outside the inventor's hometown Mainz were established around 1460 in Strasbourg by pioneers Johannes Mentelin and Heinrich Eggestein. Subsequently, the first modern newspaper was published in Strasbourg in 1605, when Johann Carolus received the permission by the City of Strasbourg to print and distribute a weekly journal written in German by reporters from several central European cities. La Belle Strasbourgeoise, by Nicolas de Largillière, 1701: elements of tracht and French fashions worn with aplomb, embody the independent culture of Strasbourg's high bourgeoisie From Thirty Years' War to First World War[edit] The Free City of Strasbourg remained neutral during the Thirty Years' War 1618-1648, and retained its status as a Free Imperial City. However, the city was later annexed by Louis XIV of France to extend the borders of his kingdom. Louis' advisors believed that, as long as Strasbourg remained independent, it would endanger the King's newly annexed territories in Alsace, and, that to defend these large rural lands effectively, a garrison had to be placed in towns such as Strasbourg.[23] Indeed, the bridge over the Rhine at Strasbourg had been used repeatedly by Imperial (Holy Roman Empire) forces,[24] and three times during the Franco-Dutch War Strasbourg had served as a gateway for Imperial invasions into Alsace.[25] In September 1681 Louis' forces, though lacking a clear casus belli, surrounded the city with overwhelming force. After some negotiation, Louis marched into the city unopposed on 30 September 1681 and proclaimed its annexation.[26] This annexation was one of the direct causes of the brief and bloody War of the Reunions whose outcome left the French in possession. The French annexation was recognized by the Treaty of Ryswick (1697). The official policy of religious intolerance which drove most Protestants from France after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685 was not applied in Strasbourg and in Alsace, because both had a special status as a province à l'instar de l'étranger effectif (a kind of foreign province of the king of France). Strasbourg Cathedral, however, was taken from the Lutherans to be returned to the Catholics as the French authorities tried to promote Catholicism wherever they could (some other historic churches remained in Protestant hands). Its language also remained overwhelmingly German: the German Lutheran university persisted until the French Revolution. Famous students included Goethe and Herder. The Duke of Lorraine and Imperial troops crossing the Rhine at Strasbourg during the War of the Austrian Succession, 1744 During a dinner in Strasbourg organized by Mayor Frédéric de Dietrich on 25 April 1792, Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle composed "La Marseillaise". The same year François Christophe Kellermann, a child of Strasbourg was appointed the head of the Mosel Army. He led his company to victory at the battle of Valmy and saved the young French republic. He was later appointed Duke of Valmy by Napoléon in 1808. During this period Jean-Baptiste Kléber, also born in Strasbourg, led the French army to win several decisive victories. A statue of Kléber now stands in the centre of the city, at Place Kléber, and he is still one of the most famous French officers. He was later appointed Marshal of France by Napoléon. Statue of Kléber at Strasbourg Strasbourg's status as a free city was revoked by the French Revolution. Enragés, most notoriously Eulogius Schneider, ruled the city with an increasingly iron hand. During this time, many churches and monasteries were either destroyed or severely damaged. The cathedral lost hundreds of its statues (later replaced by copies in the 19th century) and in April 1794, there was talk of tearing its spire down, on the grounds that it was against the principle of equality. The tower was saved, however, when in May of the same year citizens of Strasbourg crowned it with a giant tin Phrygian cap. This artifact was later kept in the historical collections of the city until it was destroyed by the Germans in 1870 during the Franco-Prussian war.[27] In 1805, 1806 and 1809, Napoléon Bonaparte and his first wife, Joséphine stayed in Strasbourg.[28] In 1810, his second wife Marie Louise, Duchess of Parma spent her first night on French soil in the palace. Another royal guest was King Charles X of France in 1828.[29] In 1836, Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte unsuccessfully tried to lead his first Bonapartist coup in Strasbourg. 1888 German map of Strasbourg as part of the German Empire With the growth of industry and commerce, the city's population tripled in the 19th century to 150,000. During the Franco-Prussian War and the Siege of Strasbourg, the city was heavily bombarded by the Prussian army. The bombardment of the city was meant to break the morale of the people of Strasbourg.[30] On 24 and 26 August 1870, the Museum of Fine Arts was destroyed by fire, as was the Municipal Library housed in the Gothic former Dominican church, with its unique collection of medieval manuscripts (most famously the Hortus deliciarum), rare Renaissance books, archeological finds and historical artifacts. The gothic cathedral was damaged as well as the medieval church of Temple Neuf, the theatre, the city hall, the court of justice and many houses. At the end of the siege 10,000 inhabitants were left without shelter; over 600 died, including 261 civilians, and 3200 were injured, including 1,100 civilians.[31] In 1871, after the end of the war, the city was annexed to the newly established German Empire as part of the Reichsland Elsass-Lothringen under the terms of the Treaty of Frankfurt. As part of Imperial Germany, Strasbourg was rebuilt and developed on a grand and representative scale, such as the Neue Stadt, or "new city" around the present Place de la République. Historian Rodolphe Reuss and Art historian Wilhelm von Bode were in charge of rebuilding the municipal archives, libraries and museums. The University, founded in 1567 and suppressed during the French Revolution as a stronghold of German sentiment,[citation needed] was reopened in 1872 under the name Kaiser-Wilhelms-Universität. Strasbourg in the 1890s. A belt of massive fortifications was established around the city, most of which still stands today, renamed after French generals and generally classified as Monuments historiques; most notably Fort Roon (now Fort Desaix) and Fort Podbielski (now Fort Ducrot) in Mundolsheim, Fort von Moltke (now Fort Rapp) in Reichstett, Fort Bismarck (now Fort Kléber) in Wolfisheim, Fort Kronprinz (now Fort Foch) in Niederhausbergen, Fort Kronprinz von Sachsen (now Fort Joffre) in Holtzheim and Fort Großherzog von Baden (now Fort Frère) in Oberhausbergen.[32] Those forts subsequently served the French army (Fort Podbielski/Ducrot for instance was integrated into the Maginot Line[33]), and were used as POW-camps in 1918 and 1945. Two garrison churches were also erected for the members of the Imperial German army, the Lutheran Église Saint-Paul and the Roman Catholic Église Saint-Maurice. 1918 to the present[edit] A lost, then restored, symbol of modernity in Strasbourg : a room in the Aubette building designed by Theo van Doesburg, Hans Arp and Sophie Taeuber-Arp. Strasbourg's monumental Romanesque revival synagogue did not survive the Nazi invasion of the city. Post-war and contemporary Strasbourg: The Quartier de l'Esplanade (1950s) and a Tramway (as from 1994). Following the defeat of the German empire in World War I and the abdication of the German Emperor, some revolutionary insurgents declared Alsace-Lorraine as an independent Republic, without preliminary referendum or vote. On 11 November 1918 (Armistice Day), communist insurgents proclaimed a "soviet government" in Strasbourg, following the example of Kurt Eisner in Munich as well as other German towns. French troops commanded by French general Henri Gouraud entered triumphantly in the city on 22 November. A major street of the city now bears the name of that date (Rue du 22 Novembre) which celebrates the entry of the French in the city.[34][35][36] Viewing the massive cheering crowd gathered under the balcony of Strasbourg's town hall, French President Raymond Poincaré stated that "the plebiscite is done".[37] In 1919, following the Treaty of Versailles, the city was annexed by France in accordance with U.S. President Woodrow Wilson's "Fourteen Points" without a referendum. The date of the assignment was retroactively established on Armistice Day. It is doubtful whether a referendum in Strasbourg would have ended in France's favour since the political parties striving for an autonomous Alsace or a connection to France accounted only for a small proportion of votes in the last Reichstag as well as in the local elections.[38] The Alsatian autonomists who were pro French had won many votes in the more rural parts of the region and other towns since the annexation of the region by Germany in 1871. The movement started with the first election for the Reichstag; those elected were called "les députés protestataires", and until the fall of Bismarck in 1890, they were the only deputies elected by the Alsatians to the German parliament demanding the return of those territories to France.[39] At the last Reichstag election in Strasbourg and its periphery, the clear winners were the Social Democrats; the city was the administrative capital of the region, was inhabited by many Germans appointed by the central government in Berlin and its flourishing economy attracted many Germans. This could explain the difference between the rural vote and the one in Strasbourg. After the war, many Germans left Strasbourg and went back to Germany; some of them were denounced by the locals or expelled by the newly appointed authorities. The Saverne Affair was vivid in the memory among the Alsatians. In 1920, Strasbourg became the seat of the Central Commission for Navigation on the Rhine, previously located in Mannheim, one of the oldest European institutions. It moved into the former Imperial Palace. When the Maginot Line was built, the Sous-secteur fortifié de Strasbourg (fortified sub-sector of Strasbourg) was laid out on the city's territory as a part of the Secteur fortifié du Bas-Rhin, one of the sections of the Line. Blockhouses and casemates were built along the Grand Canal d'Alsace and the Rhine in the Robertsau forest and the port.[40] Between the German invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939 and the Anglo-French declaration of War against the German Reich on 3 September 1939, the entire city (a total of 120,000 people) was evacuated, like other border towns as well. Until the arrival of the Wehrmacht troops mid-June 1940, the city was, for ten months, completely empty, with the exception of the garrisoned soldiers. The Jews of Strasbourg had been evacuated to Périgueux and Limoges, the University had been evacuated to Clermont-Ferrand. After the ceasefire following the Fall of France in June 1940, Alsace was annexed to Germany and a rigorous policy of Germanisation was imposed upon it by the Gauleiter Robert Heinrich Wagner. When, in July 1940, the first evacuees were allowed to return, only residents of Alsatian origin were admitted. The last Jews were deported on 15 July 1940 and the main synagogue, a huge Romanesque revival building that had been a major architectural landmark with its 54-metre-high dome since its completion in 1897, was set ablaze, then razed.[41] The commemorative tablet affixed on the façade of the episcopal middle school Saint-Étienne in Strasbourg in memory of the young martyr Marcel Weinum beheaded by the Germans. In September 1940 the first Alsatian resistance movement led by Marcel Weinum called La main noire (The black hand) was created. It was composed by a group of 25 young men aged from 14 to 18 years old who led several attacks against the German occupation. The actions culminated with the attack of the Gauleiter Robert Wagner, the highest commander of Alsace directly under the order of Hitler. In March 1942, Marcel Weinum was prosecuted by the Gestapo and sentenced to be beheaded at the age of 18 in April 1942 in Stuttgart, Germany. His last words will be: "If I have to die, I shall die but with a pure heart". From 1943 the city was bombarded by Allied aircraft. While the First World War had not notably damaged the city, Anglo-American bombing caused extensive destruction in raids of which at least one was allegedly carried out by mistake.[42] In August 1944, several buildings in the Old Town were damaged by bombs, particularly the Palais Rohan, the Old Customs House (Ancienne Douane) and the Cathedral.[43] On 23 November 1944, the city was officially liberated by the 2nd French Armoured Division under General Leclerc. He achieved the oath that he made with his soldiers, after the decisive Capture of Kufra. With the Oath of Kuffra, they swore to keep up the fight until the French flag flew over the Cathedral of Strasbourg. Many people from Strasbourg were incorporated in the German Army against their will, and were sent to the eastern front, those young men and women were called Malgré-nous. Many tried to escape from the incorporation, join the French Resistance, or desert the Wehrmacht but many couldn't because they were running the risk of having their families sent to work or concentration camps by the Germans. Many of these men, especially those who did not answer the call immediately, were pressured to "volunteer" for service with the SS, often by direct threats on their families. This threat obliged the majority of them to remain in the German army. After the war, the few that survived were often accused of being traitors or collaborationists, because this tough situation was not known in the rest of France, and they had to face the incomprehension of many. In July 1944, 1500 malgré-nous were released from Soviet captivity and sent to Algiers, where they joined the Free French Forces. Nowadays history recognizes the suffering of those people, and museums, public discussions and memorials have been built to commemorate this terrible period of history of this part of Eastern France (Alsace and Moselle). Liberation of Strasbourg took place on 23 November 1944. In 1947, a fire broke out in the Musée des Beaux-Arts and devastated a significant part of the collections. This fire was an indirect consequence of the bombing raids of 1944: because of the destruction inflicted on the Palais Rohan, humidity had infiltrated the 1866 April 9 – The Civil Rights Act of 1866 is passed by Congress over Johnson's presidential veto. All persons born in the United States are now citizens. The Ku Klux Klan is formed in Pulaski, Tennessee, made up of white Confederate veterans; it becomes a paramilitary insurgent group to enforce white supremacy. July – New Orleans Riot: white citizens riot against blacks. July 21 – Southern Homestead Act of 1866 opens 46 million acres of land in Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Louisiana, and Mississippi; African Americans have priority access until January 1, 1877. September 21 – The U.S. Army regiment of Buffalo Soldiers (African Americans) is formed. One version of the Second Freedmen's Bureau Act is vetoed and fails; another is vetoed and passed via override in July. 1867 February 14 – Augusta Institute, now known as Morehouse College, is founded in the basement of Springfield Baptist Church in Augusta, Georgia.[20] March 2 – Howard University is founded in Washington, D.C. 1868 April 1 – Hampton Institute is founded in Hampton, Virginia. July 9 – The Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution's Section 1 requires due process and equal protection. Through 1877, whites attack black and white Republicans to suppress voting. Every election cycle is accompanied by violence, increasing in the 1870s. Elizabeth Keckly publishes Behind the Scenes (or, Thirty Years a Slave and Four Years in the White House). 1870 February 3 – The Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution guarantees the right of male citizens of the United States to vote regardless of race, color or previous condition of servitude. February 25 – Hiram Rhodes Revels becomes the first black member of the Senate (see African Americans in the United States Congress). Christian Methodist Episcopal Church founded. First two Enforcement Acts. 1871 October 10 – Octavius Catto, a civil rights activist, is murdered during harassment of blacks on Election Day in Philadelphia. US Civil Rights Act of 1871 passed, also known as the Klan Act and Third Enforcement Act. 1872 December 11 – P. B. S. Pinchback is sworn in as the first black member of the U.S. House of Representatives. Disputed gubernatorial election in Louisiana cause political violence for more than two years. Both Republican and Democratic governors hold inaugurations and certify local officials. Elijah McCoy patented his first invention, an automatic lubricator that supplied oil to moving parts while a machine was still operating.[21] 1873 April 14 – In the Slaughter-House Cases the U.S. Supreme Court votes 5–4 for a narrow reading of the Fourteenth Amendment. The court also discusses dual citizenship: State citizens and U.S. citizens. Easter – The Colfax Massacre; more than 100 blacks in the Red River area of Louisiana are killed when attacked by white militia after defending Republicans in local office – continuing controversy from gubernatorial election. The Coushatta MassacreRepublican officeholders are run out of town and murdered by white militia before leaving the state – four of six were relatives of a Louisiana state senator, a northerner who had settled in the South, married into a local family and established a plantation. Five to twenty black witnesses are also killed. 1874 Founding of paramilitary groups that act as the "military arm of the Democratic Party": the White League in Louisiana and the Red Shirts in Mississippi, and North and South Carolina. They terrorize blacks and Republicans, turning them out of office, killing some, disrupting rallies, and suppressing voting. September – In New Orleans, continuing political violence erupts related to the still-contested gubernatorial election of 1872. Thousands of the White League armed militia march into New Orleans, then the seat of government, where they outnumber the integrated city police and black state militia forces. They defeat Republican forces and demand that Gov. Kellogg leave office. The Democratic candidate McEnery is installed and White Leaguers occupy the capitol, state house and arsenal. This was called the "Battle of Liberty Place". The White League and McEnery withdraw after three days in advance of federal troops arriving to reinforce the Republican state government. 1875–1899[edit] 1875 March 1 – Civil Rights Act of 1875 signed. The Mississippi Plan to intimidate blacks and suppress black voter registration and voting. 1876 Lewis Latimer prepared drawings for Alexander Graham Bell's application for a telephone patent.[22] July 8 – The Hamburg Massacre occurs when local people riot against African Americans who were trying to celebrate the Fourth of July. varied – White Democrats regain power in many southern state legislatures and pass the first Jim Crow laws. 1877 With the Compromise of 1877, Republican Rutherford B. Hayes withdraws federal troops from the South in exchange for being elected President of the United States, causing the collapse of the last three remaining Republican state governments. The compromise formally ends the Reconstruction era of the United States. 1879 Spring – Thousands of African Americans refuse to live under segregation in the South and migrate to Kansas. They become known as Exodusters. 1880 In Strauder v. West Virginia, the U.S. Supreme Court rules that African Americans could not be excluded from juries. During the 1880s, African Americans in the South reach a peak of numbers in being elected and holding local offices, even while white Democrats are working to assert control at state level. 1881 April 11 – Spelman Seminary is founded as the Atlanta Baptist Female Seminary. July 4 – Booker T. Washington opens the Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute in Tuskegee, Alabama. 1882 Lewis Latimer invented the first long-lasting filament for light bulbs and installed his lighting system in New York City, Philadelphia, and Canada. Later, he became one of the 28 members of Thomas Edison's Pioneers.[22] A biracial populist coalition achieves power in Virginia (briefly). The legislature founds the first public college for African Americans, Virginia Normal and Collegiate Institute, as well as the first mental hospital for African Americans, both near Petersburg, Virginia. The hospital was established in December 1869, at Howard's Grove Hospital, a former Confederate unit, but is moved to a new campus in 1882. 1883 October 16 – In Civil Rights Cases, the U.S. Supreme Court strikes down the Civil Rights Act of 1875 as unconstitutional. 1884 Mark Twain's Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is published, featuring the admirable African-American character Jim. Judy W. Reed, of Washington, D.C., and Sarah E. Goode, of Chicago, are the first African-American women inventors to receive patents. Signed with an "X", Reed's patent no. 305,474, granted September 23, 1884, is for a dough kneader and roller. Goode's patent for a cabinet bed, patent no. 322,177, is issued on July 14, 1885. Goode, the owner of a Chicago furniture store, invented a folding bed that could be formed into a desk when not in use. Ida B. Wells sues the Chesapeake, Ohio & South Western Railroad Company for its use of segregated "Jim Crow" cars. 1886 Norris Wright Cuney becomes the chairman of the Texas Republican Party, the most powerful role held by any African American in the South during the 19th century. 1887 October 3 – The State Normal School for Colored Students, which would become Florida A&M University, is founded. 1890 Mississippi, with a white Democrat-dominated legislature, passes a new constitution that effectively disfranchises most blacks through voter registration and electoral requirements, e.g., poll taxes, residency tests and literacy tests. This shuts them out of the political process, including service on juries and in local offices. By 1900 two-thirds of the farmers in the bottomlands of the Mississippi Delta are African Americans who cleared and bought land after the Civil War.[23] 1892 Ida B. Wells publishes her pamphlet Southern Horrors: Lynch Law in All Its Phases. 1893 Daniel Hale Williams performed open-heart surgery in 1893 and founded Provident Hospital in Chicago, the first with an interracial staff.[24] 1895 September 18 – Booker T. Washington delivers his Atlanta Compromise address at the Cotton States and International Exposition in Atlanta, Georgia. W. E. B. Du Bois is the first African-American to be awarded a Ph.D by Harvard University. 1896 May 18 – In Plessy v. Ferguson, the U.S. Supreme Court upholds de jure racial segregation of "separate but equal" facilities. (see "Jim Crow laws" for historical discussion). The National Association of Colored Women is formed by the merger of smaller groups. As one of the earliest Black Hebrew Israelites in the United States, William Saunders Crowdy re-establishes the Church of God and Saints of Christ. George Washington Carver is invited by Booker T. Washington to head the Agricultural Department at what would become Tuskegee University. His work would revolutionize farming – he found about 300 uses for peanuts. 1898 Louisiana enacts the first statewide grandfather clause that provides exemption for illiterate whites to voter registration literacy test requirements. In Williams v. Mississippi the U.S. Supreme Court upholds the voter registration and election provisions of Mississippi's constitution because they applied to all citizens. Effectively, however, they disenfranchise blacks and poor whites. The result is that other southern states copy these provisions in their new constitutions and amendments through 1908, disfranchising most African Americans and tens of thousands of poor whites until the 1960s. November 10 – Coup d'état begins in Wilmington, North Carolina, resulting in considerable loss of life and property in the African-American community and the installation of a white supremacist Democratic Party regime. 1899 September 18 – The "Maple Leaf Rag" is an early ragtime composition for piano by Scott Joplin. 20th century[edit] 1900–1924[edit] 1900 Since the Civil War, 30,000 African-American teachers had been trained and put to work in the South. The majority of blacks had become literate.[25] 1901 Booker T. Washington's autobiography Up from Slavery is published. Benjamin Tillman, senator from South Carolina, comments on Theodore Roosevelt's dining with Booker T. Washington: “The action of President Roosevelt in entertaining that nigger will necessitate our killing a thousand niggers in the South before they learn their place again.”[26] 1903 September – W. E. B. Du Bois's article The Talented Tenth published. W. E. B. Du Bois's seminal work The Souls of Black Folk is published. 1904 May 15 – Sigma Pi Phi, the first African-American Greek-letter organization, is founded by African-American men as a professional organization, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Orlando, Florida hires its first black postman. 1905 July 11 – First meeting of the Niagara Movement, an interracial group to work for civil rights.[27] 1906 The Brownsville Affair, which eventually involves President Roosevelt.[27] December 4 – African-American men found Alpha Phi Alpha at Cornell University, the first intercollegiate fraternity for African-American men. 1907 National Primitive Baptist Convention of the U.S.A. formed. 1908 December 26 – Jack Johnson wins the World Heavyweight Title. Alpha Kappa Alpha at Howard University; African-American college women found the first college sorority for African-American women. 1909 February 12 – Planned first meeting of group which would become the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), an interracial group devoted to civil rights. The meeting actually occurs on May 31, but February 12 is normally cited as the NAACP's founding date. May 31 – The National Negro Committee meets and is formed; it will be the precursor to the NAACP. 1910 May 30 – The National Negro Committee chooses "National Association for the Advancement of Colored People" as its organization name. September 29 – Committee on Urban Conditions Among Negroes formed; the next year it will merge with other groups to form the National Urban League. The NAACP begins publishing The Crisis. 1911 January 5 – Kappa Alpha Psi Fraternity, Inc. was founded at Indiana University. November 17 – Omega Psi Phi Fraternity, Inc., which is the first African-American Greek-lettered organization founded at an HBCU (Howard University). 1913 The Moorish Science Temple of America, a religious organization, is founded by Noble Drew Ali (Timothy Drew). January 13 – Delta Sigma Theta Sorority, Inc., was founded at Howard University 1914 January 9 – Phi Beta Sigma Fraternity, Inc. was founded at Howard University by A. Langston Taylor, Leonard F. Morse, and Charles I. Brown Newly elected president Woodrow Wilson orders physical re-segregation of federal workplaces and employment after nearly 50 years of integrated facilities.[28][29][30] 1915 February 8 – The Birth of a Nation is released to film theaters. The NAACP protests in cities across the country, convincing some not to show the film. June 21 – In Guinn v. United States, the U.S. Supreme Court rules against grandfather clauses used to deny blacks the right to vote. September 9 – Professor Carter G. Woodson founds the Association for the Study of African American Life and History in Chicago. A schism from the National Baptist Convention, USA, Inc. forms the National Baptist Convention of America, Inc. 1916 January – Professor Carter Woodson and the Association for the Study of Negro Life and History begins publishing the Journal of Negro History, the first academic journal devoted to the study of African-American history. March 23 – Marcus Garvey arrives in the U.S. (see Garveyism). Los Angeles hires the country's first black female police officer.[citation needed] The Great Migration begins and lasts until 1940. Approximately one and a half million African-Americans move from the Southern United States to the North and Midwest. More than five million migrate in the Second Great Migration from 1940 to 1970, which includes more destinations in California and the West. 1917 May–June – East St. Louis Riot August 23 – Houston Riot In Buchanan v. Warley, the U.S. Supreme Court upholds that racially segregated housing violates the 14th Amendment. 1918 Viola Pettus, an African-American nurse in Marathon, Texas, wins attention for her courageous care of victims of the Spanish Influenza, including members of the Ku Klux Klan. Mary Turner was a 33-year-old lynched in Lowndes County, Georgia who was Eight months pregnant. Turner and her child were murdered after she publicly denounced the extrajudicial killing of her husband by a mob. Her death is considered a stark example of racially motivated mob violence in the American south, and was referenced by the NAACP's anti-lynching campaign of the 1920s, 1930s and 1940s. 1919 Summer – Red Summer of 1919 riots: Chicago, Washington, D.C.; Knoxville, Indianapolis, and elsewhere. September 28 – Omaha Race Riot of 1919, Nebraska. October 1–5 – Elaine Race Riot, Phillips County, Arkansas. Numerous blacks are convicted by an all-white jury or plead guilty. In Moore v. Dempsey (1923), the U.S. Supreme Court overturns six convictions for denial of due process under the Fourteenth Amendment. 1920 February 13 – Negro National League (1920–1931) established. Fritz Pollard and Bobby Marshall are the first two African-American players in the National Football League (NFL). Pollard goes on to become the first African-American coach in the NFL. January 16 – Zeta Phi Beta Sorority, Inc., was founded at Howard University 1921 May 23 – Shuffle Along is the first major African American hit musical on Broadway. May 31 – Tulsa Race Riot, Oklahoma Bessie Coleman becomes the first African American to earn a pilot's license. 1923 Garrett A. Morgan invented and patented the first automatic three-position traffic light.[31] January 1–7 – Rosewood massacre: Six African Americans and two whites die in a week of violence when a white woman in Rosewood, Florida, claims she was beaten and raped by a black man. February 19 – In Moore v. Dempsey, the U.S. Supreme Court holds that mob-dominated trials violate the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. Jean Toomer's novel Cane is published. 1924 Knights of Columbus commissions and publishes The Gift of Black Folk: The Negroes in the Making of America by civil rights activist and NAACP cofounder W. E. B. Du Bois as part of the organization's Racial Contribution Series. Spelman Seminary becomes Spelman College. 1925–1949[edit] 1925 Spring – American Negro Labor Congress is founded. August 8 – 35,000 Ku Klux Klan members march in Washington, D.C. (see List of protest marches on Washington, D.C.) Countee Cullen publishes his first collection of poems in Color. Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters is organized. The Harlem Renaissance (also known as the New Negro Movement) is named after the anthology The New Negro, edited by Alain Locke . 1926 The Harlem Globetrotters are founded. Historian Carter G. Woodson proposes Negro History Week. Corrigan v Buckley challenges deed restrictions preventing a white seller from selling to a black buyer. The U.S. Supreme Court rules in favor of Buckley, stating that the 14th Amendment does not apply because Washington, DC is a city and not a state, thereby rendering the Due Process Clause inapplicable. Also, that the Due Process Clause does not apply to private agreements. 1928 Claude McKay's Home to Harlem wins the Harmon Gold Award for Literature. 1929 The League of United Latin American Citizens, the first organization to fight for the civil rights of Latino Americans, is founded in Corpus Christi, Texas. John Hope becomes president of Atlanta University. Graduate classes are offered in the liberal arts, and Atlanta University becomes the first predominantly black university to offer graduate education. Unknown – Hallelujah! is released, one of the first films to star an all-black cast. 1930 August 7 – Thomas Shipp and Abram Smith were African-American men lynched in Marion, Indiana, after being taken from jail and beaten by a mob. They had been arrested that night as suspects in a robbery, murder and rape case. A third African-American suspect, 16-year-old James Cameron, had also been arrested and narrowly escaped being killed by the mob. He later became a civil rights activist.[32] The League of Struggle for Negro Rights is founded in New York City. Jessie Daniel Ames forms the Association of Southern Women for the Prevention of Lynching. She gets 40,000 white women to sign a pledge against lynching and for change in the South.[33] 1931 March 25 – Scottsboro Boys arrested in what would become a nationally controversial case. Walter Francis White becomes the executive secretary of the NAACP. 1932 The Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male begins at Tuskegee University. 1933 Hocutt v. Wilson unsuccessfully challenged segregation in higher education in the United States. 1934 Wallace D. Fard, leader of the Nation of Islam, mysteriously disappears. He is succeeded by Elijah Muhammad. 1935 June 18 – In Murray v. Pearson, Thurgood Marshall and Charles Hamilton Houston of the NAACP successfully argue the landmark case in Maryland to open admissions to the segregated University of Maryland School of Law on the basis of equal protection under the Fourteenth Amendment. Jesse Owens wins gold medals in front of Hitler. 1936 August – American sprinter Jesse Owens wins four gold medals at the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin. 1937 6.2.1 General works 6.2.2 Baseball 6.2.3 Boxing 6.2.4 Chess 6.2.5 Olympics Athletes[edit] Baseball[edit] Ryan Braun, outfielder (Milwaukee Brewers) Ike Davis, first baseman (Oakland Athletics) Ian Kinsler, second baseman (Detroit Tigers) Ryan Lavarnway, catcher (Atlanta Braves) Jason Marquis, pitcher (Cincinnati Reds) Joc Pederson, outfielder (Los Angeles Dodgers) Kevin Youkilis, first and third baseman Cal Abrams, US, outfielder[2] Rubén Amaro, Jr., US, outfielder, general manager (Philadelphia Phillies)[2] Morrie Arnovich, US, outfielder, All-Star[2] Brad Ausmus, US, catcher, All-Star, 3x Gold Glove, manager of the Detroit Tigers[2] José Bautista, Dominican-born, pitcher[2] Robert "Bo" Belinsky, U.S., pitcher. Pitched no-hit game as rookie with Los Angeles Angels in 1962.[3] Moe Berg, US, catcher & shortstop, and spy for US in World War II[2] Ron Blomberg, US, DH/first baseman/outfielder, Major League Baseball's first designated hitter[4] Lou Boudreau, US, shortstop, 8x All-Star, batting title, MVP, Baseball Hall of Fame, manager[2] Ralph Branca, US, pitcher, 3x All-Star[5] Ryan Braun, US, outfielder, 2007 Rookie of the Year, home run champion, 5x All-Star, 5x Silver Slugger, 2011 National League MVP (Milwaukee Brewers)[6] Craig Breslow, US, relief pitcher (Boston Red Sox)[2] Mark Clear, US, relief pitcher, 2x All-Star[7] Andy Cohen, US, second baseman, coach Harry Danning, US, catcher, 4x All-Star[2][8] Ike Davis, US, first baseman (Oakland Athletics)[9] Moe Drabowsky, US, pitcher[10] Harry Eisenstat, US, pitcher[11] Mike Epstein, US, first baseman[2] Harry Feldman, US, pitcher[2] Scott Feldman, US, pitcher (Houston Astros)[2] Gavin Fingleson, South African-born Australian, Olympic silver medalist[12] Nate Freiman, US, first baseman (Oakland Athletics)[13][14] Sam Fuld, US, outfielder (Oakland Athletics)[15] Sid Gordon, US, outfielder & third baseman, 2x All-Star[2] John Grabow, US, relief pitcher[2] Shawn Green, US, right fielder, 2x All-Star, Gold Glove, Silver Slugger[2] Hank Greenberg, US, first baseman & outfielder, 5x All-Star, 4x home run champion, 4x RBI leader, 2x MVP, Baseball Hall of Fame[2] Ken Holtzman, US, starting pitcher, 2x All-Star[2] Joe Horlen, US, pitcher, All-Star, ERA leader[2] Gabe Kapler, US, outfielder[2] Ian Kinsler, US, second baseman, 3x All-Star (Detroit Tigers)[16] Sandy Koufax, US, starting pitcher, 6x All-Star, 5x ERA leader, 4x strikeouts leader, 3x Wins leader, 2x W-L% leader, 1 perfect game, MVP, 3x Cy Young Award, Baseball Hall of Fame[2] Barry Latman, US, pitcher[11] Ryan Lavarnway, US, catcher (Atlanta Braves)[17] Al Levine, US, relief pitcher[2] Mike Lieberthal, US, catcher, 2x All-Star, Gold Glove[2] Elliott Maddox, US, outfielder & third baseman[2] Jason Marquis, US, starting pitcher, Silver Slugger, All Star (Cincinnati Reds)[2] Erskine Mayer, US, pitcher[2] Bob Melvin, US, catcher & manager of the Oakland Athletics[18] Jon Moscot, US, pitcher (Cincinnati Reds)[19] Jeff Newman, US, catcher & first baseman, All-Star, manager[2] Joc Pederson, US, outfielder (Los Angeles Dodgers)[20] Barney Pelty, US, pitcher[2] Lipman Pike, US, outfielder, second baseman, & manager, 4x home run champion, RBI leader[2] Kevin Pillar, US, outfielder (Toronto Blue Jays) Aaron Poreda, US, pitcher (Yomiuri Giants)[2] Scott Radinsky, US, relief pitcher[2] Dave Roberts, US, pitcher[2] Saul Rogovin, US, pitcher[2] Al "Flip" Rosen, US, third baseman & first baseman, 4x All-Star, 2x home run champion, 2x RBI leader, MVP[2] Goody Rosen, Canada, outfielder, All-Star[2] Josh Satin, US, second baseman (Cincinnati Reds)[21] Richie Scheinblum, US, outfielder, All-Star[2] Scott Schoeneweis, US, pitcher[2] Michael Schwimer, US, relief pitcher (Toronto Blue Jays)[22] Art Shamsky, US, outfielder & first baseman[2] Larry Sherry, US, relief pitcher[2] Norm Sherry, US, catcher & manager[2] Moe "the Rabbi of Swat" Solomon, US, outfielder[2] George Stone, US, outfielder, 1x batting title[23] Steve Stone, US, starting pitcher, All-Star, Cy Young Award[2] Danny Valencia, US, third baseman (Oakland Athletics)[24] Phil "Mickey" Weintraub, US, first baseman & outfielder Josh Whitesell, US, first baseman (Saraperos de Saltillo)[25] Steve Yeager, US, catcher[2] Kevin Youkilis, US, first baseman, third baseman, & left fielder, 3x All-Star, Gold Glove, Hank Aaron Award[2] Josh Zeid, US, pitcher for the Detroit Tigers Basketball[edit] Omri Casspi Jordan Farmar Gal Mekel Jon Scheyer Sam Balter, US, 5' 10" guard, Olympic champion[8][26] Sue Bird, US & Israel, WNBA 5' 9" point guard, 2x Olympic champion, 4x All-Star (Seattle Storm)[27] David Blatt, US & Israel, Israeli Premier League 6' 3.5" point guard, coached Russia National Basketball Team, Israel's Maccabi Tel Aviv to Euroleague Championship, Euroleague Coach of the Year, 4x Israeli Coach of the Year, Head Coach of Cleveland Cavaliers[28][29] David Blu (formerly "Bluthenthal"), US & Israel, Euroleague 6' 7" forward (Maccabi Tel Aviv)[30] Harry Boykoff, US, NBA 6' 10" center[31] Tal Brody, US & Israel, Euroleague 6' 2" shooting guard[8] Larry Brown, US, ABA 5' 9" point guard, 3x All-Star, 3x assists leader, NCAA National Championship coach (1988), NBA coach, Olympic champion, Hall of Fame[8][26] Omri Casspi, Israel, 6' 9" small forward, drafted in 1st round of 2009 NBA Draft (Sacramento Kings)[32] Shay Doron, Israel & US, WNBA 5' 9" guard (New York Liberty)[33] Lior Eliyahu, Israel, 6' 9" power forward, NBA draft 2006 (Orlando Magic; traded to Houston Rockets), playing in the Euroleague (Hapoel Jerusalem)[34] Jordan Farmar, US, NBA 6' 2" point guard (Los Angeles Clippers)[35] Marty Friedman, US, 5' 7" guard & coach, Hall of Fame[8] Ernie Grunfeld, Romania-born US, NBA 6' 6" guard/forward & GM, Olympic champion[36] Yotam Halperin, Israel, 6' 5" guard, drafted in 2006 NBA draft by Seattle SuperSonics (Hapoel Jerusalem)[34] Sonny Hertzberg, US, NBA 5' 9" point guard, original NY Knickerbocker[37] Art Heyman, US, NBA 6' 5" forward/guard[37] Nat Holman, US, ABL 5' 11" guard & coach, Hall of Fame[8] Red Holzman, US, BAA & NBA 5' 10" guard, 2x All-Star, & NBA coach, NBA Coach of the Year, Hall of Fame[8] Eban Hyams, India-Israel-Australia, 6' 5" guard formerly of the Australian National Basketball League, Israeli Super League, first ever Indian national to play in ULEB competitions[38] Barry Kramer, first team All-American at NYU in 1963 Joel Kramer, US Phoenix Suns 6'7" forward Sylven Landesberg, US, 6' 6" former UVA shooting guard (Maccabi Tel Aviv)[39] Rudy LaRusso, US, NBA 6' 7" forward/center, 5x All-Star[40] Nancy Lieberman, US, WNBA player, general manager, & coach, Olympic silver, Hall of Fame[26][41] Gal Mekel, Israel, NBA 6' 3" point guard (Dallas Mavericks)[42] Bernard Opper, US, NBL and ABL 5' 10" guard, All-American at University of Kentucky Donna Orender (née Geils), US, Women's Pro Basketball League 5' 7" point guard, All-Star, current WNBA president[37] Lennie Rosenbluth, US, NBA 6' 4" forward[36] Danny Schayes, US, NBA 6' 11" center/forward (son of Dolph Schayes)[37] Dolph Schayes, US, NBA 6' 7" forward/center, 3x FT% leader, 1x rebound leader, 12x All-Star, Hall of Fame, & coach (father of Danny Schayes)[8] Ossie Schectman, US, NBA 6' 0" guard, scorer of first NBA basket[36] Doron Sheffer, US (college), Maccabi Tel Aviv,Hapoel Jerusalem Jon Scheyer, US, All-American Duke University 6' 5" shooting guard & point guard (Maccabi Tel Aviv)[43] Barney Sedran, US, Hudson River League & New York State League 5' 4" guard, Hall of Fame[8] Sidney Tannenbaum, US, BAA 6' 0" guard, 2x All-American, left as NYU all-time scorer[8] Alex Tyus, US & Israel, 6' 8" power forward/center (Maccabi Tel Aviv) Neal Walk, US, NBA 6' 10" center[37] Max Zaslofsky, US, NBA 6' 2" guard/forward, 1x FT% leader, 1x points leader, All-Star, ABA coach[8] Bowling[edit] Barry Asher, 10 PBA titles, PBA Hall of Fame[7] Marshall Holman, 22 PBA titles (11th all-time); PBA Hall of Fame[44] Mark Roth, 34 PBA titles (5th all-time); PBA Hall of Fame[45] Boxing[edit] Yuri Foreman Zab Judah Dmitry Salita Barney Aaron (Young), English-born US lightweight, Hall of Fame[46] Abe Attell ("The Little Hebrew"), US, world champion featherweight, Hall of Fame[8] Monte Attell ("The Knob Hill Terror"), US, bantamweight[47] Max Baer ("Madcap Maxie"), US, world champion heavyweight. Wore a Star of David on his trunks; inducted into the International Jewish Sports Hall of Fame. Hall of Fame/[48] Benny Bass ("Little Fish"), US, world champion featherweight & world champion junior lightweight, Hall of Fame[8] Fabrice Benichou, France, world champion super bantamweight[34] Jack Kid Berg (Judah Bergman), England, world champion junior welterweight, wore a Star of David on his trunks, Hall of Fame[8] Maxie Berger, Canada, wore a Star of David on his trunks[49] Samuel Berger, US, Olympic champion heavyweight[8] Jack Bernstein (also "John Dodick", "Kid Murphy", and "Young Murphy"), US, world champion junior lightweight[8] Nathan "Nat" Bor, US, Olympic bronze lightweight[26] Mushy Callahan (Vincente Sheer), US, world champion light welterweight[47] Joe Choynski ("Chrysanthemum Joe"), US, heavyweight, Hall of Fame[8][50] Robert Cohen, French & Algerian, world champion bantamweight[8] Al "Bummy" Davis (Abraham Davidoff), US, welterweight & lightweight, wore a Star of David on his trunks[47] Louis "Red" Deutsch, US, heavyweight, later famous as the proprietor of the Tube Bar in Jersey City, NJ and inspiration for Moe Szyslak on "The Simpsons" Carolina Duer ("The Turk"), Argentine, WBO world champion super flyweight and bantamweight[51] John "Jackie" Fields (Jacob Finkelstein), US, world champion welterweight & Olympic champion featherweight, Hall of Fame[8] Hagar Finer, Israel, WIBF champion bantamweight[52] Yuri Foreman, Belarusian-born Israeli US middleweight and World Boxing Association champion super welterweight[53] György Gedó, Hungary, Olympic champion light flyweight[41] Abe Goldstein, US, world champion bantamweight[54] Ruby Goldstein ("Ruby the Jewel of the Ghetto"), US, welterweight, wore a Star of David on his trunks[8] Roman Greenberg ("The Lion from Zion"), Israel, International Boxing Organization's Intercontinental champion heavyweight[53] Stéphane Haccoun, France, featherweight, super featherweight, and junior lightweight[55][56] Alphonse Halimi ("La Petite Terreur"), France, world champion bantamweight[8] Harry Harris ("The Human Hairpin"), US, world champion bantamweight[8] Gary Jacobs, Scottish, British, Commonwealth, and European (EBU) champion welterweight[57] Ben Jeby (Morris Jebaltowsky), US, world champion middleweight[47] Yoel Judah, US, 3x world champion kickboxer and boxer & trainer[58] Zab Judah ("Super"), US, world champion junior welterweight & world champion welterweight (Converted to Christianity)[58][59][60][61] Louis Kaplan ("Kid Kaplan"), Russian-born US, world champion featherweight, Hall of Fame[8][50] Solly Krieger ("Danny Auerbach"), US, world champion middleweight[8] Julie Kogon US, 1947 New England Lightweight Champion. Inducted into the Connecticut Boxing Hall of Fame. Benny Leonard (Benjamin Leiner; "The Ghetto Wizard"), US, world champion lightweight, Hall of Fame[8] Battling Levinsky (Barney Lebrowitz), US, world champion light heavyweight, Hall of Fame[8] King Levinsky (Harry Kraków), US, heavweight, also known as Kingfish Levinsky[8] Harry Lewis (Harry Besterman), US, world champion welterweight[47] Ted "Kid" Lewis (Gershon Mendeloff), England, world champion welterweight, Hall of Fame[8] Sammy Luftspring, Canada, Canadian champion welterweight, Canada's Sports Hall of Fame[47] Saoul Mamby, US, world champion junior welterweight[47] Al McCoy (Alexander Rudolph), US, world champion middleweight[8] Daniel Mendoza, England, world champion heavyweight, Hall of Fame[8] Jacob Michaelsen, Denmark, Olympic bronze heavyweight[26] Samuel Mosberg, US, Olympic champion lightweight[8] Bob Olin, US, world champion light heavyweight[62] Victor Perez ("Young"), Tunisian, world champion flyweight[8] Harold Reitman ("The Boxing Doctor"), professional heavyweight that fought while working as surgeon, Golden Gloves champion.[63] Charlie Phil Rosenberg ("Charles Green"), US, world champion bantamweight[8] Dana Rosenblatt ("Dangerous"), US, world champion middleweight[64] Maxie Rosenbloom ("Slapsie"), US, world champion light heavyweight, wore a Star of David on his trunks, Hall of Fame[8] Barney Ross (Dov-Ber Rasofsky), US, world champion lightweight & junior welterweight, Hall of Fame[8] Mike Rossman (Michael Albert DiPiano; "The Jewish Bomber"), US, world champion light heavyweight, wore Star of David on trunks[64] Shamil Sabirov, Russia, Olympic champion light flyweight[26] Dmitry Salita ("Star of David"), US, North American Boxing Association champion light welterweight[65] Isadore "Corporal Izzy" Schwartz ("The Ghetto Midget"), US, world champion flyweight[8] Al Singer ("The Bronx Beauty"), US, world champion lightweight[47] "Lefty" Lew Tendler, US, bantamweight, lightweight, and welterweight, wore a Star of David on his trunks, Hall of Fame[8] Sid Terris ("Ghost of the Ghetto"), US, lightweight, wore a Star of David on his trunks[54] Matt Wels, England, champion of Great Britain lightweight and world champion welterweight Canoeing[edit] Jessica Fox Shaun Rubenstein László Fábián, Hungary, sprint canoer, Olympic champion (K-2 10,000 meter), 4x world champion (3x K-2 10,000 meter and 1x K-4 10,000 meter) and one silver (K-4 10,000 meter)[26] Imre Farkas, Hungary, sprint canoer, 2x Olympic bronze (C-2 1,000 and 10,000 meter)[66] Jessica Fox, French-born Australian, slalom canoer, Olympic silver (K-1 slalom), world championships bronze (C-1)[67] Myriam Fox-Jerusalmi, France, slalom canoer, Olympic bronze (K-1 slalom), 5 golds at ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships (2x K-1, 3x K-1 team)[41] Klára Fried-Bánfalvi, Hungary, sprint canoer, Olympic bronze (K-2 500 m), world champion (K-2 500 m)[26] Leonid Geishtor, USSR (Belarus), sprint canoer, Olympic champion (Canadian pairs 1,000-meter)[41] Joe Jacobi, US, slalom canoer, Olympic champion (Canadian slalom pairs)[41] Michael Kolganov, Soviet (Uzbek)-born Israeli, sprint canoer, world champion, Olympic bronze (K-1 500-meter)[41] Anna Pfeffer, Hungary, sprint canoer, Olympic 2x silver (K-2 500 m), bronze (K-1 500 m); world champion (K-2 500 m), silver (K-4 500 m), 2x bronze (K-2 500)[26] Naum Prokupets, Moldovan-born Soviet, sprint canoer, Olympic bronze (C-2 1,000-meter), gold (C-2 10,000-meter) at ICF Canoe Sprint World Championships[41] Leon Rotman, Romanian, sprint canoer, 2x Olympic champion (C-1 10,000 meter, C-1 1,000-meter) and bronze (C-1 1,000-meter), 14 national titles[41] Shaun Rubenstein, South Africa, canoer, World Marathon champion 2006[68] Cricket[edit] Michael Klinger Ben Ashkenazi, Australia (Victorian Bushrangers) Ali Bacher, South Africa, batsman and administrator (relative of Adam Bacher)[69] Mike Barnard, England, cricketer[69] Mark Bott, England, cricketer[70] Stevie Eskinazi, South African born, Australian raised, English wicketkeeper Mark Fuzes. Australian all rounder played for Hong Kong. Father Peter Fuzes kept goal for Australian Soccer team (see)[71] Dennis Gamsy, South Africa, Test wicket-keeper[72] Darren Gerard, England, cricketer[73] Norman Gordon, South Africa, fast bowler[69] Steven Herzberg, English-born Australian, cricketer[74] Sid Kiel, South Africa, opening batsman (Western Province)[75] Michael Klinger, Australia, batsman (Western Warriors)[69] Leonard "Jock" Livingston, Australia, cricketer[69] Bev Lyon, England, cricketer[69] Dar Lyon, England, cricketer (brother of Bev)[69] Greg, Jason, and Lara Molins, two brothers and a cousin from the same Irish family[74] Jon Moss, Australia, allrounder (Victorian Bushrangers)[69] John Raphael, England, batsman[69] Marshall Rosen, NSW Australia, cricketer and selector[76] Lawrence Seeff, South Africa, batsmen[77] Maurice Sievers, Australia, lower order batsman and fast-medium bowler[69] Bensiyon Songavkar, India, cricketer, MVP of 2009 Maccabiah Games cricket tournament[78] Fred Susskind, South Africa, Test batsman[69] Fred Trueman, England, English test fast bowler (a lifelong Christian)[69] Julien Wiener, Australia, Test cricketer[69] Mandy Yachad, South Africa, Test cricketer[69] Equestrian[edit] Margie Goldstein-Engle Robert Dover, US, 4x Olympic bronze, 1x world championship bronze (dressage)[79] Margie Goldstein-Engle, US, world championship silver, Pan American Games gold, silver, and bronze (jumping)[80] Edith Master, US, Olympic bronze (dressage)[26] Fencing[edit] Helene Mayer Soren Thompson Henri Anspach, Belgium (épée & foil), Olympic champion[26] Paul Anspach, Belgium (épée & foil), 2x Olympic champion[26] Norman Armitage (Norman Cohn), US (sabre), 17x US champion, Olympic bronze[26] Albert "Albie" Axelrod, US (foil); Olympic bronze, 4x US champion[8] Péter Bakonyi, Hungary (saber), Olympic 3x bronze[41] Cliff Bayer, US (foil); youngest US champion[37] Albert Bogen (Albert Bógathy), Austria (saber), Olympic silver[41] Tamir Bloom, US (épée); 2x US champion[37] Daniel Bukantz, US (foil); 4x US champion[37] Sergey Sharikov, Russia (saber), 2x Olympic champion, silver, bronze[26] Yves Dreyfus, France (épée), Olympic bronze, French champion[26] Ilona Elek, Hungary (saber), 2x Olympic champion[26] Boaz Ellis, Israel (foil), 5x Israeli champion[34] Siegfried "Fritz" Flesch, Austria (sabre), Olympic bronze[26] Dr. Dezsö Földes, Hungary (saber), 2x Olympic champion[26] Dr. Jenö Fuchs, Hungary (saber), 4x Olympic champion[81] Támas Gábor, Hungary (épée), Olympic champion[8] János Garay, Hungary (saber), Olympic champion, silver, bronze, killed by the Nazis[8] Dr. Oskar Gerde, Hungary (saber), 2x Olympic champion, killed by the Nazis[26] Dr. Sándor Gombos, Hungary (saber), Olympic champion[62] Vadim Gutzeit, Ukraine (saber), Olympic champion[82] Johan Harmenberg, Sweden (épée), Olympic champion[26] Delila Hatuel, Israel (foil), Olympian, ranked # 9 in world[83] Lydia Hatuel-Zuckerman, Israel (foil), 6x Israeli champion[84][85] Dr. Otto Herschmann, Austria (saber), Olympic silver[26] Emily Jacobson, US (saber), NCAA champion[86] Sada Jacobson, US (saber), ranked # 1 in the world, Olympic silver, 2x bronze[86] Allan Jay, British (épée & foil), Olympic 2x silver, world champion[26] Endre Kabos, Hungary (saber), 3x Olympic champion, bronze[26] Roman Kantor, Poland (épée), Nordic champion & Soviet champion, killed by the Nazis[26] Dan Kellner, US (foil), US champion[86] Byron Krieger, US[87] Grigory Kriss, Soviet (épée), Olympic champion, 2x silver[26] Allan Kwartler, US (saber), 3x Pan American Games champion[10] Alexandre Lippmann, France (épée), 2x Olympic champion, 2x silver, bronze[8] Helene Mayer, Germany & US (foil), Olympic champion[26] Ljubco Georgievski ????? ??????????? Kiro Gligorov ???? ???????? Nikola Gruevski ?????? ???????? Gjorge Ivanov ????? ?????? Gordana Jankuloska ??????? ?????????? Zoran Jolevski ????? ???????? Srgjan Kerim ????? ????? Lazar Koliševski ????? ?????????? Hari Kostov ???? ?????? Trifun Kostovski ?????? ????????? Ilinka Mitreva ?????? ??????? Lazar Mojsov ????? ?????? Tito Petkovski ???? ????????? Lui Temelkovski ??? ??????????? Boris Trajkovski ????? ?????????? Vasil Tupurkovski ????? ??????????? Zoran Zaev ????? ???? Partisans World War II freedom fighters edit Mirce Acev ????? ???? Mihajlo Apostolski ????j?? ?????????? Cede Filipovski Dame ???? ?????????? ???? Blagoj Jankov Muceto ?????? ?????? ?????? Orce Nikolov ???? ??????? Strašo Pindžur ?????? ?????? Hristijan Todorovski Karpoš ????????? ?????????? ?????? Revolutionaries edit Yordan Piperkata ?????? ???????? ????????? Goce Delcev ???? ????? Petar Pop Arsov ????? ??? ????? Dame Gruev ???? ????? Jane Sandanski ???? ????????? Dimitar Pop Georgiev Berovski ??????? ??? ???????? ???????? Ilyo Voyvoda ???? ??? ?????????? Pere Tošev ???? ????? Pitu Guli ???? ???? Dimo Hadži Dimov ???? ???? ????? Hristo Uzunov ?????? ?????? Literature edit Gjorgji Abadžiev ????? ??????? Petre M Andreevski ????? ? ?????????? Maja Apostoloska ???? ??????????? Dimitrija Cupovski ????????? ???????? Jordan Hadži Konstantinov Džinot ?????? ???? ???????????? ????? Vasil Iljoski ????? ?????? Slavko Janevski ?????? ???????? Blaže Koneski ????? ??????? Risto Krle ????? ???? Vlado Maleski ????? ??????? Mateja Matevski ?????? ???????? Krste Misirkov ????? ????????? Kole Nedelkovski ???? ??????????? Olivera Nikolova Anton Panov ????? ????? Gjorche Petrov ????? ?????? Vidoe Podgorec ????? ???????? Aleksandar Prokopiev ?????????? ????????? Koco Racin ???? ????? Jovica Tasevski Eternijan ?????? ???????? ????????? Gane Todorovski ???? ?????????? Stevan Ognenovski ?????? ?????????? Music edit Classical music edit Composers edit Atanas Badev ?????? ????? Dimitrije Bužarovski ????????? ?????????? Kiril Makedonski ????? ?????????? Toma Prošev ???? ?????? Todor Skalovski ????? ????????? Stojan Stojkov ?????? ??????? Aleksandar Džambazov ?????????? ???????? Conductors edit Borjan Canev ?????? ????? Instrumentalists edit Pianists Simon Trpceski ????? ???????? Opera singers edit Blagoj Nacoski ?????? ??????? Boris Trajanov ????? ???????? Popular and folk music edit Composers edit Darko Dimitrov ????? ???????? Slave Dimitrov ????? ???????? Jovan Jovanov ????? ??????? Ilija Pejovski ????? ???????? Musicians edit Bodan Arsovski ????? ???????? Goran Trajkoski ????? ????????? Ratko Dautovski ????? ????????? Kiril Džajkovski ????? ????????? Tale Ognenovski ???? ?????????? Vlatko Stefanovski ?????? ??????????? Stevo Teodosievski ????? ???????????? Aleksandra Popovska ?????????? ???????? Singers and Bands edit Lambe Alabakoski ????? ?????????? Anastasia ????????? Arhangel ???????? Kristina Arnaudova ???????? ????????? Kaliopi Bukle ??????? Dani Dimitrovska ???? ??????????? Riste Tevdoski ????? ???????? Karolina Goceva ???????? ?????? Vaska Ilieva ????? ?????? Andrijana Janevska ????????? ???????? Vlado Janevski ????? ???????? Jovan Jovanov ????? ??????? Leb i sol ??? ? ??? Aleksandar Makedonski ?????????? ?????????? Elvir Mekic ????? ????? Mizar ????? Jasmina Mukaetova ??????? ????e???? The Malagasy French Malgache are the ethnic group that forms nearly the entire population of Madagascar They are divided into two subgroups the "Highlander" Merina Sihanaka and Betsileo of the central plateau around Antananarivo Alaotra Ambatondrazaka and Fianarantsoa and the "coastal dwellers" elsewhere in the country This division has its roots in historical patterns of settlement The original Austronesian settlers from Borneo arrived between the third and tenth centuries and established a network of principalities in the Central Highlands region conducive to growing the rice they had carried with them on their outrigger canoes Sometime later a large number of settlers arrived from East Africa and established kingdoms along the relatively unpopulated coastlines The difference in ethnic origins remains somewhat evident between the highland and coastal regions In addition to the ethnic distinction between highland and coastal Malagasy one may speak of a political distinction as well Merina monarchs in the late th and early th century united the Merina principalities and brought the neighboring Betsileo people under their administration first They later extended Merina control over the majority of the coastal areas as well The military resistance and eventual defeat of most of the coastal communities assured their subordinate position vis à vis the Merina Betsileo alliance During the th and th centuries the French colonial administration capitalized on and further exacerbated these political inequities by appropriating existing Merina governmental infrastructure to run their colony This legacy of political inequity dogged the people of Madagascar after gaining independence in candidates ethnic and regional identities have often served to help or hinder their success in democratic elections Within these two broad ethnic and political groupings the Malagasy were historically subdivided into specifically named ethnic groups who were primarily distinguished from one another on the basis of cultural practices These were namely agricultural hunting or fishing practices construction style of dwellings music hair and clothing styles and local customs or taboos the latter known in the Malagasy language as fady citation needed The number of such ethnic groups in Madagascar has been debated The practices that distinguished many of these groups are less prevalent in the st century than they were in the past But many Malagasy are proud to proclaim their association with one or several of these groups as part of their own cultural identity "Highlander" ethnic groups Merina Sihanaka Betsileo Zafimaniry Coastal ethnic groups Antaifasy or Antefasy Antaimoro or Temoro or Antemoro Antaisaka or Antesaka Antambahoaka Antandroy or Tandroy Antankarana Antanosy or Tanosy Academia edit Afifi al Akiti Khasnor Johan historian Khoo Kay Kim Jomo Kwame Sundaram Danny Quah Harith Ahmad Architects edit Main article List of Malaysian architects Artists edit Main article List of Malaysian artists Business edit Tan Sri Syed Mokhtar Al Bukhary born Tan Sri Dato Loh Boon Siew – Tan Sri Jeffrey Cheah Tan Sri William Cheng Dato Choong Chin Liang born Tan Sri Dato Tony Fernandes born Lim Goh Tong – Tan Sri Tiong Hiew King Tan Sri Teh Hong Piow born Chung Keng Quee – Tan Sri Ananda Krishnan born Robert Kuok born Tan Sri Quek Leng Chan born Shoba Purushothaman Shah Hakim Zain Halim Saad Tan Sri Mohd Saleh Sulong Tan Sri Vincent Tan born Lillian Too born Tan Sri Dr Francis Yeoh Tun Daim Zainuddin born Tan Sri Kong Hon Kong Designers edit Bernard Chandran fashion designer Jimmy Choo born shoe designer Poesy Liang born artist writer philanthropist jewellery designer industrial designer interior architect music composer Inventors edit Yi Ren Ng inventor of the Lytro Entertainers edit Yasmin Ahmad – film director Stacy Angie Francissca Peter born Jamal Abdillah born Sudirman Arshad – Loganathan Arumugam died Datuk David Arumugam Alleycats Awal Ashaari Alvin Anthons born Asmawi bin Ani born Ahmad Azhar born Ning Baizura born Kasma Booty died Marion Caunter host of One In A Million and the TV Quickie Ella born Erra Fazira born Sean Ghazi born Fauziah Latiff born Angelica Lee born Daniel Lee Chee Hun born Fish Leong born Sheila Majid born Amy Mastura born Mohamad Nasir Mohamad born Shathiyah Kristian born Meor Aziddin Yusof born Ah Niu born Dayang Nurfaizah born Shanon Shah born Siti Nurhaliza born Misha Omar born Hani Mohsin – Aziz M Osman born Azmyl Yunor born P Ramlee born Aziz Sattar born Fasha Sandha born Ku Nazhatul Shima Ku Kamarazzaman born Nicholas Teo born Pete Teo Penny Tai born Hannah Tan born Jaclyn Victor born Chef Wan Adira Suhaimi Michael Wong born Victor Wong born Dato Michelle Yeoh Hollywood actress born James Wan director of Hollywood films like several Saw films Insidious The Conjuring Fast and Furious born Ziana Zain born Zee Avi Shila Amzah Yunalis Zarai Zamil Idris born Military edit Leftenan Adnan – Warrior from mainland Malaya Antanum Warrior from Sabah Borneo Rentap Warrior from Sarawak Syarif Masahor Warrior from Sarawak Monsopiad Warrior from Sabah Borneo Haji Abdul Rahman Limbong Warrior from Telemong Terengganu Mat Salleh Warrior from Sabah Borneo Rosli Dhobi Warrior from Sarawak Politicians edit Parameswara founder of Sultanate of Malacca Tunku Abdul Rahman Putra Al Haj st Prime Minister of independent Malaya Tun Abdul Razak nd Prime Minister V T Sambanthan Founding Fathers of Malaysia along with Tunku Abdul Rahman and Tan Cheng Lock Tun Dato Sir Tan Cheng Lock Founder of MCA Tun Hussein Onn rd Prime Minister Mahathir Mohammad th Prime Minister Father of Modernisation Abdullah Ahmad Badawi th Prime Minister since Najib Tun Razak Current Prime Minister since Dato Seri Ong Ka Ting Dato Seri Anwar Ibrahim Dato Wan Hisham Wan Salleh Nik Aziz Nik Mat Raja Nong Chik Zainal Abidin Federal Territory and Urban Wellbeing Minister Wan Azizah Wan Ismail Karpal Singh Lim Kit Siang Lim Guan Eng Tengku Razaleigh Hamzah Religious edit Antony Selvanayagam Roman Catholic Bishop of the Diocese of Penang Anthony Soter Fernandez Archbishop Emeritus of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Kuala Lumpur and Bishop Emeritus of the Diocese of Penang Gregory Yong – Second Roman Catholic Archbishop of Singapore Tan Sri Datuk Murphy Nicholas Xavier Pakiam Metropolitan archbishop of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Kuala Lumpur president of the Catholic Bishops Conference of Malaysia Singapore and Brunei and publisher of the Catholic weekly newspaper The Herald Datuk Ng Moon Hing the fourth and current Anglican Bishop of West Malaysia Sportspeople edit Squash edit Datuk Nicol Ann David Ong Beng Hee Azlan Iskandar Low Wee Wern Badminton edit Chan Chong Ming men s doubles Dato Lee Chong Wei Chew Choon Eng men s doubles Wong Choong Hann Chin Eei Hui women s doubles Hafiz Hashim Roslin Hashim Wong Pei Tty women s doubles Choong Tan Fook men s doubles Lee Wan Wah men s doubles Koo Kien Keat men s doubles Tan Boon Heong men s doubles Retired edit Tan Aik Huang Eddy Choong Punch Gunalan Yap Kim Hock Foo Kok Keong Jalani Sidek Misbun Sidek Rashid Sidek Razif Sidek Cheah Soon Kit Lee Wan Wah Football soccer edit Brendan Gan Sydney FC Shaun Maloney Wigan Athletic Akmal Rizal Perak FA Kedah FA RC Strasbourg FCSR Haguenau Norshahrul Idlan Talaha Kelantan FA Khairul Fahmi Che Mat Kelantan FA Mohd Safiq Rahim Selangor FA Mohd Fadzli Saari Selangor FA PBDKT T Team FC SV Wehen Rudie Ramli Selangor FA PKNS F C SV Wehen Mohd Safee Mohd Sali Selangor FA Pelita Jaya Baddrol Bakhtiar Kedah FA Mohd Khyril Muhymeen Zambri Kedah FA Mohd Azmi Muslim Kedah FA Mohd Fadhli Mohd Shas Harimau Muda A FC ViOn Zlaté Moravce Mohd Irfan Fazail Harimau Muda A FC ViOn Zlaté Moravce Wan Zack Haikal Wan Noor Harimau Muda A FC ViOn Zlaté Moravce F C Ryukyu Nazirul Naim Che Hashim Harimau Muda A F C Ryukyu Khairul Izuan Abdullah Sarawak FA Persibo Bojonegoro PDRM FA Stanley Bernard Stephen Samuel Sabah FA Sporting Clube de Goa Nazmi Faiz Harimau Muda A SC Beira Mar Ahmad Fakri Saarani Perlis FA Atlético S C Chun Keng Hong Penang FA Chanthaburi F C Retired edit Serbegeth Singh owner founder of MyTeam Blackburn Rovers F C Global dvisor Mokhtar Dahari former Selangor FA and Malaysian player Lim Teong Kim former Hertha BSC player