Bing Dawe Gregor Kregar Peter Gibson Smith Judy Millar Jeffrey Harris Jim Speers Sara Hughes Rohan Wealleans James Robinson Richard Lewer Marcus Williams and Susan Jowsey Sam Mitchell Akiko Diegel Shigeyuki Kihara Jae Hoon Lee Roger Mortimer Controversy Pacific Gender Identity Awards External links References Exhibitions edit Kihara has exhibited her work extensively in New Zealand and internationally with solo exhibitions including Fa a fafine In a manner of a woman Sherman Galleries Sydney Vavau Tales of Ancient Samoa The Gus Fisher Gallery University of Auckland and Undressing the Pacific Hocken Library Gallery University of Otago Collections edit Kihara s work can be found in the public collections of Te Papa Tongarewa Museum of New Zealand Auckland Art Gallery New Zealand The University of Auckland Art Collection New Zealand Massey University New Zealand Waikato Museum of Art and History New Zealand Sherman Contemporary Art Foundation Sydney Australia Museum of Contemporary Art Sydney Australia Tjibaou Cultural Centre New Caledonia University of Cambridge Museum of Archeology and Anthropology UK and The Metropolitan Museum of Art New York Curator edit In Kihara curated a group exhibition about Samoan Fa afafine titled Measina Fa afafine treasures from a liminal space at Artstation gallery in Auckland In Kihara s curatorial project Hand in Hand co curated by Jenny Fraser was held in Australia The exhibition presented various art forms and mediums to challenge dominant ideas about gender and sexuality in an intercultural exhibition of Indigenous artists from the Pacific and Australia The exhibition was staged at Performance Space and Boomalli Aboriginal Artists Cooperative in Sydney and toured to the University of Tasmania Plimsoll Gallery

Performance Art edit Kihara s solo performance entitled Taualuga the last dance has been performed at the th Asia Pacific Triennial of Contemporary Art Brisbane Australia Haus der Kulturen der Welt Berlin Musée du Quai Branly Paris and Govett Brewster Art Gallery New Plymouth New Zealand Controversy edit In Kihara s T shirt series Teuanoa i – Adorn to Excess which parodied well known corporate logos were exhibited at Te Papa and later added to the national museum s collection The T shirts featured Kihara s quirky take on well known brands turning logos such as The Warehouse to The Whorehouse and KFC to KKK The exhibition created controversy in the media and raised legal questions about copyright versus artistic expression Following legal advice Te Papa removed three of the T shirts from its exhibition but purchased the entire series Pacific Gender Identity edit Combining her affinity for fashion design with performance and imagery Kihara stages provocative scenes that question the authenticity of art works by non indigenous artists in the Pacific in the th and early th centuries For Fa afafine In the Manner of a Woman exhibited at Sherman Galleries in Sydney Kihara used her own body to reconstruct the colonial gaze preserved as ethnographic imagery She undermines the scheme of Western classifications including gender by portraying both a male and female subject These works speak of Kihara s own identity and status as a Samoan and as a Fa afafine Fa afafine understood as the third gender in Western interpretation are an accepted part of the Samoan social fabric By taking ownership of the image Kihara challenges orientalist clichés composed in colonial photographs of Samoans Awards edit Shigeyuki Kihara was the recipient of the Creative New Zealand Emerging Pacific Artist Award in In she was also the first artist in residence at The Physics Rooms Art Residency in Christchurch In she was awarded the Wallace Art Awards Paramount Award Peter Panoa by the triangle inequality again which is the CHSH inequality Derivation from Clauser and Horne s inequality edit In their paper Clauser and Horne show that the CHSH inequality can be derived from the CH one As they tell us in a two channel experiment the CH single channel test is still applicable and provides four sets of inequalities governing the probabilities p of coincidences Working from the inhomogeneous version of the inequality we can write where j and k are each or indicating which detectors are being considered To obtain the CHSH test statistic S all that is needed is to multiply the inequalities for which j is different from k by and add these to the inequalities for which j and k are the same Experiments using the CHSH test edit Many Bell test experiments conducted subsequent to Aspect s second experiment in have used the CHSH inequality estimating the terms using and assuming fair sampling Some dramatic violations of the inequality have been reported Today this formulation of the Bell inequality remains in use See also edit Bell s Theorem Bell test experiments Correlation does not imply causation Leggett–Garg inequality Quantum entanglement Quantum Mechanics Scheme of a CHSH two channel optical Bell test The source S is assumed to produce pairs of photons one pair at a time with the individual photons sent in opposite directions Each photon encounters a two channel polarizer whose orientation can be set by the experimenter Emerging signals from each channel are detected and coincidences counted by the coincidence monitor CM It is assumed that any individual photon has to go one way or the other at the polarizer The entanglement hypothesis states that the two photons in a pair due to their common origin share a wave function so that a measurement on one of the photons affects the other instantaneously no matter the separation between them This effect is termed the EPR paradox although it is not a true paradox The Local realism hypothesis on the other hand states that measurement on one photon has no influence whatsoever on the other As a basis for our description of experimental errors let us consider a typical experiment of CHSH type see picture to the right In the experiment the source is assumed to emit light in the form of pairs of particle like photons with each photon sent off in opposite directions When photons are detected simultaneously in reality during the same short time interval at both sides of the coincidence monitor a coincident detection is counted On each side of the coincidence monitor there are two inputs that are here named the and the input The individual photons must according to quantum mechanics make a choice and go one way or the other at a two channel polarizer For each pair emitted at the source ideally either the or the input on both sides will detect a photon The four possibilities can be categorized as and The number of simultaneous detections of all four types hereinafter N N N and N is counted over a timespan covering a number of emissions from the source Then the following is calculated E N N N N N N N N This is done with polarizer a rotated into two positions a and a and polarizer b into two positions b and b so that we get E a b E a b E a b and E a b Then the following is calculated S E a b E a b E a b E a b Entanglement and local realism give different predicted values on S thus the experiment if there are no substantial sources of error gives an indication to which of the two theories better corresponds to reality citation needed Sources of error in the light source edit The principal possible errors in the light source are Failure of rotational invariance The light from the source might have a preferred polarization direction in which case it is not rotationally invariant Multiple emissions The light source might emit several pairs at the same time or within a short timespan causing error at detection citation needed Sources of error in the optical polarizer edit Imperfections in the polarizer The polarizer might influence the relative amplitude or other aspects of reflected and transmitted light in various ways citation needed Sources of error in the detector or detector settings edit The experiment may be set up as not being able to detect photons simultaneously in the and input on the same side of the experiment If the source may emit more than one pair of photons at any one instant in time or close in time after one another for example this could cause errors in the detection Imperfections in the detector failing to detect some photons or detecting photons even when the light source is turned off noise citation needed Free choice of detector orientations edit The experiment requires choice of the detectors orientations If this free choice were in some way denied then another loophole might be opened as the observed correlations could potentially be explained by the limited choices of detector orientations Thus even if all experimental loopholes are closed superdeterminism may allow the construction of a local realist theory that agrees with experiment experiment on the GHZ state edit This is the first of new Bell type experiments on more than two particles this one uses the so called GHZ state of three particles Rowe et al are the first to close the detection loophole edit The detection loophole was first closed in an experiment with two entangled trapped ions carried out in the ion storage group of David Wineland at the National Institute of Standards and Technology in Boulder The experiment had detection efficiencies well over Gröblacher et al test of Leggett type non local realist theories edit A specific class of non local theories suggested by Anthony Leggett is ruled out Based on this the authors conclude that any possible non local hidden variable theory consistent with quantum mechanics must be highly counterintuitive Salart et al Separation in a Bell Test edit This experiment filled a loophole by providing an km separation between detectors which is sufficient to allow the completion of the quantum state measurements before any information could have traveled between the two detectors Ansmann et al Overcoming the detection loophole in solid state edit This was the first experiment testing Bell inequalities with solid state qubits superconducting Josephson phase qubits were used This experiment surmounted the detection loophole using a pair of superconducting qubits in an entangled state However the experiment still suffered from the locality loophole because the qubits were only separated by a few millimeters Giustina et al Larsson et al Overcoming the detection loophole for photons edit The detection loophole for photons has been closed for the first time in a group by Anton Zeilinger using highly efficient detectors This makes photons the first system for which all of the main loopholes have been closed albeit in different experiments Christensen et al Overcoming the detection loophole for photons edit The Christensen et al experiment is similar to that of Giustina et al Giustina et al did just four long runs with constant measurement settings one for each of the four pairs of settings The experiment was not pulsed so that formation of pairs from the two records of meaurement results Alice and Bob had to be done after the experiment which in fact exposes the experiment to the coincidence loophole This led to a reanalysis of the experimental data in a way which removed the coincidence loophole and fortunately the new analysis still showed a violation of the appropriate CHSH or CH inequality On the other hand the Christensen et al experiment was pulsed and measurement settings were frequently reset in a random way though only once every particle pairs not every time Hensen et al A loophole free Bell test edit This was the first Bell test that simultaneously addresses the detection loophole the locality loophole and the memory loophole with the electron spin associated with single nitrogen vacancy defect centres in diamond Using spins kilometers apart the team measured S ± P< rejecting the local realist view The experiment has closed two of the three major loopholes beautifully but two out of three isn t three per Dr David Kaiser Dr Kaiser thinks a weakness of the experiment is an electronic system used to add randomness to the measurement may be predetermined in a method that was not detected in the experiment To try to close a final loophole a team will try an experiment to ensure the independence of measurement detectors by capturing light from distant objects on different sides of the Milky Way galaxy in then capturing the light from quasars in and Loopholes edit Main article Loopholes in Bell test experiments Though the series of increasingly sophisticated Bell test experiments has convinced the physics community in general that local realism is untenable it remains true that the outcome of every single experiment done so far that violates a Bell inequality can still theoretically be explained by local realism by exploiting the detection loophole and or the locality loophole The locality or communication loophole means that since in actual practice the two detections are separated by a time like interval the first detection may influence the second by some kind of signal To avoid this loophole the experimenter has to ensure that particles travel far apart before being measured and that the measurement process is rapid More serious is the detection or unfair sampling loophole because particles are not always detected in both wings of the experiment It can be imagined that the complete set of particles would behave randomly but instruments only detect a subsample showing quantum correlations by letting detection be dependent on a combination of local hidden variables and detector setting Experimenters have repeatedly stated that loophole free tests can be expected in the near future On the other hand some researchers point out the logical possibility that quantum physics itself prevents a loophole free test from ever being implemented Bell state measurement edit The Bell measurement is an important concept in quantum information science It is a joint quantum mechanical measurement of two qubits that determines which of the four Bell states the two qubits are in If the qubits were not in a Bell state before they get projected into a Bell state according to the projection rule of quantum measurements and as Bell states are entangled a Bell measurement is an entangling operation Bell state measurement is the crucial step in quantum teleportation The result of a Bell state measurement is used by one s co conspirator to reconstruct the original state of a teleported particle from half of an entangled pair the quantum channel that was previously shared between the two ends Experiments which utilize so called linear evolution local measurement techniques cannot realize a complete Bell state measurement Linear evolution means that the detection apparatus acts on each particle independently from the state or evolution of the other and local measurement means that each particle is localized at a particular detector registering a click to indicate that a particle has been detected Such devices can be constructed for example from mirrors beam splitters and wave plates and are attractive from an experimental perspective because they are easy to use and have a high measurement cross section For entanglement in a single qubit variable only three distinct classes out of four Bell states are distinguishable using such linear optical techniques This means two Bell states cannot be distinguished from each other limiting the efficiency of quantum communication protocols such as teleportation If a Bell state is measured from this ambiguous class the teleportation event fails Entangling particles in multiple qubit variables such as for photonic systems polarization and a two element subset of orbital angular momentum states allows the experimenter to trace over one variable and achieve a complete Bell state measurement in the other Leveraging so called hyper entangled systems thus has an advantage for teleportation It also has advantages for other protocols such as superdense coding in which hyper entanglement increases the channel capacity In general for hyper entanglement in variables one can distinguish between at most classes out of Bell states using linear optical techniques Bell state correlations edit Independent measurements made on two qubits that are entangled in Bell states positively correlate perfectly if each qubit is measured in the relevant basis For the state this means selecting the same basis for both qubits If an experimenter chose to measure both qubits in a Bell state using the same basis the qubits would appear positively correlated when measuring in the basis anti correlated in the basis a and partially probabilistically correlated in other bases The correlations can be understood by measuring both qubits in the same basis and observing perfectly anti correlated results More generally can be understood by measuring the first qubit in basis the second qubit in basis and observing perfectly positively correlated results Relationship between the correlated bases of two qubits in the state Bell state Basis See also edit Bell test experiments Measurement problem Penrose interpretation Philosophy of information Philosophy of physics Pondicherry interpretation Popper s experiment Quantum decoherence Quantum entanglement Quantum gravity Quantum information Quantum pseudo telepathy Quantum teleportation Quantum Zeno effect Sakurai s Bell inequality Synchronicity Wave function collapse Ward s probability amplitude Wheeler–Feynman absorber theory Zero point field Emergence Grand unification theory Loop quantum gravity M theory Scale relativity String theory Supersymmetry Theory of everything Unparticle physics Fringe theoriesFringe theories include any new area of scientific endeavor in the process of becoming established and some proposed theories It can include speculative sciences This includes physics fields and physical theories presented in accordance with known evidence and a body of associated predictions have been made according to that theory Some fringe theories go on to become a widely accepted part of physics Other fringe theories end up being disproven Some fringe theories are a form


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kristina-king kristina-klevits kristina-soderszk kristine-heller kristin-steen krisztina-ventura krystal-de-boor krystal-steal kylee-karr kylee-nash kylie-brooks kylie-channel kylie-haze kylie-wylde kym-wilde kyoto-sun lachelle-marie lacy-rose lady-amanda-wyldefyre lady-stephanie laetitia-bisset lana-burner lana-cox lana-wood lara-amour lara-roxx lara-stevens lataya-roxx latoya laura-clair laura-lazare laura-lion laura-may laura-orsolya laura-paouck laura-zanzibar lauren-black laurence-boutin lauren-montgomery laurien-dominique laurien-wilde laurie-smith lauryl-canyon lauryn-may leah-wilde lea-magic lea-martini leanna-foxxx lee-caroll leigh-livingston leilani lenora-bruce leslie-winston lesllie-bovee letizia-bruni lexi-lane lexi-matthews lezley-zen lia-fire liliane-gray liliane-lemieuvre lili-marlene lily-gilder lily-labeau lily-rodgers lily-valentine linda-shaw linda-vale linda-wong linnea-quigley lisa-bright lisa-de-leeuw lisa-k-loring lisa-lake lisa-melendez lisa-sue-corey lise-pinson little-oral-annie liza-dwyer liza-harper lizzy-borden logan-labrent lois-ayres lola-cait long-jean-silver loni-bunny loni-sanders loona-luxx lorelei-lee lorelei-rand lorena-sanchez lori-alexia lori-blue lorrie-lovett luci-diamond lucie-doll lucie-theodorova lucy-van-dam lydia-baum lynn-franciss lynn-lemay lynn-ray lynn-stevens lynx-canon lysa-thatcher madelina-ray madison-parker magdalena-lynn maggie-randall mai-lin mandi-wine mandy-bright mandy-malone mandy-may mandy-mistery mandy-starr marcia-minor maren margit-ojetz margitta-hofer margo-stevens margot-mahler mariah-cherry marianne-aubert maria-tortuga marie-anne marie-christine-chireix marie-christine-veroda marie-claude-moreau marie-dominique-cabannes marie-france-morel marie-luise-lusewitz marie-sharp marilyn-chambers marilyne-leroy marilyn-gee marilyn-jess marilyn-martyn marilyn-star marina-hedman marion-webb marita-ekberg marita-kemper marlena marlene-willoughby marry-queen martine-grimaud martine-schultz maryanne-fisher mary-hubay mary-ramunno mary-stuart mascha-mouton maud-kennedy mauvais-denoir maxine-tyler maya-black maya-france megan-leigh megan-martinez megan-reece mei-ling melanie-hotlips melanie-scott melba-cruz melinda-russell melissa-bonsardo melissa-del-prado melissa-golden melissa-martinez melissa-melendez melissa-monet mercedes-dragon mercedes-lynn merle-michaels mesha-lynn mia-beck mia-lina mia-smiles michele-raven michelle-aston michelle-ferrari michelle-greco michelle-maren michelle-maylene michelle-monroe micki-lynn mika-barthel mika-tan mikki-taylor mimi-morgan mindy-rae ming-toy miranda-stevens miss-bunny miss-meadow miss-pomodoro missy missy-graham missy-stone missy-vega misti-jane mistress-candice misty-anderson misty-dawn misty-rain misty-regan mona-lisa mona-page moni monica-baal monica-swinn monika-peta monika-sandmayr monika-unco monique-bruno monique-cardin monique-charell monique-demoan monique-gabrielle monique-la-belle morgan-fairlane morrigan-hel moxxie-maddron mulani-rivera mysti-may nadege-arnaud nadia-styles nadine-bronx nadine-proutnal nadine-roussial nadi-phuket nanci-suiter nancy-hoffman nancy-vee natacha-delyro natalia-wood natalli-diangelo natascha-throat natasha-skyler naudia-nyce nessa-devil nessy-grant nesty nicki-hunter nicky-reed nicole-berg nicole-bernard nicole-black nicole-grey nicole-london nicole-parks nicole-scott nicole-taylor nicolette-fauludi nicole-west nika-blond nika-mamic niki-cole nikita-love nikita-rush nikki-charm nikki-grand nikki-king nikki-knight nikki-randall nikki-rhodes nikki-santana nikki-steele nikki-wilde niko nina-cherry nina-deponca nina-hartley nina-preta oana-efria obaya-roberts olesja-derevko olga-cabaeva olga-conti olga-pechova olga-petrova olivia-alize olivia-del-rio olivia-flores olivia-la-roche olivia-outre ophelia-tozzi orchidea-keresztes orsolya-blonde paige-turner paisley-hunter pamela-bocchi pamela-jennings pamela-mann pamela-stanford pamela-stealt pandora paola-albini pascale-vital pat-manning pat-rhea patricia-dale patricia-diamond patricia-kennedy patricia-rhomberg patrizia-predan patti-cakes patti-petite paula-brasile paula-harlow paula-morton paula-price paula-winters pauline-teutscher penelope-pumpkins penelope-valentin petra-hermanova petra-lamas peyton-lafferty phaedra-grant pia-snow piper-fawn pipi-anderson porsche-lynn porsha-carrera precious-silver priscillia-lenn purple-passion queeny-love rachel-ashley rachel-love rachel-luv rachel-roxxx rachel-ryan rachel-ryder racquel-darrian rane-revere raven reagan-maddux rebecca-bardoux regan-anthony regine-bardot regula-mertens reina-leone reka-gabor renae-cruz renee-foxx renee-lovins renee-morgan renee-perez renee-summers renee-tiffany rhonda-jo-petty rikki-blake riley-ray rio-mariah rita-ricardo roberta-gemma roberta-pedon robin-byrd robin-cannes robin-everett robin-sane rochell-starr rosa-lee-kimball rosemarie roxanne-blaze roxanne-hall roxanne-rollan ruby-richards sabina-k sabre sabrina-chimaera sabrina-dawn sabrina-jade sabrina-johnson sabrina-love-cox sabrina-mastrolorenzi sabrina-rose sabrina-scott sabrina-summers sacha-davril sahara sahara-sands sai-tai-tiger samantha-fox samantha-ryan samantha-sterlyng samantha-strong samueline-de-la-rosa sandra-cardinale sandra-de-marco sandra-kalermen sandra-russo sandy-lee sandy-pinney sandy-reed sandy-samuel sandy-style sandy-summers sara-brandy-canyon sara-faye sarah-bernard sarah-cabrera sarah-hevyn sarah-mills sarah-shine sara-sloane sasha sasha-hollander sasha-ligaya sasha-rose satine-phoenix satin-summer savannah-stern savanna-jane scarlet-scarleau scarlet-windsor seka selena serena serena-south severine-amoux shana-evans shanna-mccullough shannon-kelly shannon-rush shantell-day sharon-da-vale sharon-kane sharon-mitchell shaun-michelle shawna-sexton shawnee-cates shay-hendrix shayne-ryder sheena-horne sheer-delight shelby-star shelby-stevens shelly-berlin shelly-lyons sheri-st-clair sheyla-cats shonna-lynn shyla-foxxx shy-love sierra-sinn sierra-skye sigrun-theil silver-starr silvia-bella silvia-saint silvie-de-lux silvy-taylor simone-west sindee-coxx sindy-lange sindy-shy siobhan-hunter skylar-knight skylar-price skyler-dupree smokie-flame smoking-mary-jane solange-shannon sonya-summers sophia-santi sophie-call sophie-duflot sophie-evans sophie-guers stacey-donovan stacy-lords stacy-moran stacy-nichols stacy-silver stacy-thorn starla-fox starr-wood stefania-bruni stella-virgin stephanie-duvalle stephanie-rage stephanie-renee stevie-taylor summer-knight summer-rose sunny-day sunset-thomas sunshine-seiber susan-hart susanne-brend susan-nero susi-hotkiss suzanne-mcbain suzan-nielsen suzie-bartlett suzie-carina suzi-sparks sweet-nice sweety-pie sybille-rossani sylvia-benedict sylvia-bourdon sylvia-brand sylvia-engelmann syreeta-taylor syren-de-mer syvette szabina-black szilvia-lauren tai-ellis taija-rae taisa-banx talia-james tamara-lee tamara-longley tamara-n-joy tamara-west tami-white tammy tammy-lee tammy-reynolds tania-lorenzo tantala-ray tanya-danielle tanya-fox tanya-foxx tanya-lawson tanya-valis tara-aire tasha-voux tatjana-belousova tatjana-skomorokhova tawnee-lee tawny-pearl tayla-rox taylor-wane teddi-austin teddi-barrett tera-bond tera-heart tera-joy teresa-may teresa-orlowski teri-diver teri-weigel terri-dolan terri-hall tess-ferre tess-newheart thais-vieira tia-cherry tianna tiara tiffany-blake tiffany-clark tiffany-duponte tiffany-rayne tiffany-rousso tiffany-storm tiffany-towers tiffany-tyler tiger-lily tigr timea-vagvoelgyi tina-blair tina-burner tina-evil tina-gabriel tina-loren tina-marie tina-russell tish-ambrose tommi-rose tonisha-mills topsy-curvey tori-secrets tori-sinclair tori-welles tracey-adams traci-lords traci-topps traci-winn tracy-duzit tracy-love tracy-williams tricia-devereaux tricia-yen trinity-loren trisha-rey trista-post trixie-tyler ultramax ursula-gaussmann ursula-moore uschi-karnat valentina valerie-leveau valery-hilton vanessa-chase vanessa-del-rio vanessa-michaels vanessa-ozdanic vanilla-deville velvet-summers veri-knotty veronica-dol veronica-hart veronica-hill veronica-rayne veronica-sage veronika-vanoza via-paxton vicky-lindsay vicky-vicci victoria-evans victoria-gold victoria-knight victoria-luna victoria-paris victoria-slick victoria-zdrok viper virginie-caprice vivian-valentine vivien-martines wendi-white wendy-divine whitney-banks whitney-fears whitney-wonders wonder-tracey wow-nikki xanthia-berstein yasmine-fitzgerald yelena-shieffer yvonne-green zara-whites zsanett-egerhazi zuzie-boobies

of protoscience and others are a form of pseudoscience The falsification of the original theory sometimes leads to reformulation of the theory ExamplesElectrogravitics Tesla s dynamic theory of gravity Luminiferous aether Orgone Thought experiments vs real experimentsMain article Thought experiment Thought experiments are situations created in one s mind asking a question akin to suppose you are in this situation assuming such is true what would follow They are usually created to investigate phenomena that are not readily experienced in every day situations Famous examples of such thought experiments are Schrödinger s cat the EPR thought experiment simple illustrations of time dilation and so on These usually lead to real experiments designed to verify that the conclusion and therefore the assumptions of the thought experiments are correct The EPR thought experiment led to the Bell inequalities which were then tested to various degrees of rigor leading to the acceptance of the current formulation of quantum mechanics and probabilism as a working hypothesis See also Book Physics List of theoretical physicists Symmetry in quantum mechanics Timeline of developments in theoretical physics SIMP Unparticle physics Bibliography History and description of the galaxy rotation problem edit In Jan Hendrik Oort became the first to report that measurements of the stars in the Solar neighborhood moved faster than expected when a mass distribution based upon visible matter was assumed but this measurement was later determined to be essentially erroneous In Horace Babcock reported in his PhD thesis measurements of the rotation curve for Andromeda which suggested that the mass to luminosity ratio increases radially He attributed that to either the absorption of light within the galaxy or to modified dynamics in the outer portions of the spiral and not to any form of missing matter In Louise Volders demonstrated that spiral galaxy M does not spin as expected according to Keplerian dynamics In the late s and early s Vera Rubin an astronomer at the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism at the Carnegie Institution of Washington worked with a new sensitive spectrograph that could measure the velocity curve of edge on spiral galaxies to a greater degree of accuracy than had ever before been achieved Together with fellow staff member Kent Ford Rubin announced at a meeting of the American Astronomical Society the discovery that most stars in spiral galaxies orbit at roughly the same speed and that this implied that galaxy masses grow approximately linearly with radius well beyond the location of most of the stars the galactic bulge Rubin presented her results in an influential paper in These were the first robust results to suggest that either Newtonian gravity does not apply universally or that conservatively upwards of of the mass of galaxies was contained in the relatively dark galactic halo Although initially met with skepticism Rubin s results have been confirmed over the subsequent decades If Newtonian mechanics is assumed to be correct it would follow that most of the mass of the galaxy had to be in the galactic bulge near the center and that the stars and gas in the disk portion should orbit the center at decreasing velocities with radial distance from the galactic center the dashed line in Fig Observations of the rotation curve of spirals however do not bear this out Rather the curves do not decrease in the expected inverse square root relationship but are flat i e outside of the central bulge the speed is nearly a constant the solid line in Fig It is also observed that galaxies with a uniform distribution of luminous matter have a rotation curve that rises from the center to the edge and most low surface brightness galaxies LSB galaxies have the same anomalous rotation curve The rotation curves might be explained by hypothesizing the existence of a substantial amount of matter permeating the galaxy that is not emitting light in the mass to light ratio of the central bulge The material responsible for the extra mass was dubbed dark matter the existence of which was first posited in the s by Jan Oort in his measurements of the Oort constants and Fritz Zwicky in his studies of the masses of galaxy clusters The existence of non baryonic cold dark matter CDM is today a major feature of the Lambda CDM model that describes the cosmology of the universe Halo density profiles edit In order to accommodate a flat rotation curve a density profile for a galaxy and its environs must be different than one that is centrally concentrated Newton s version of Kepler s Third Law states that the radial density profile r is where v r is the radial orbital velocity profile and G is the gravitational constant This profile closely matches the expectations of a singular isothermal sphere profile where if v r is approximately constant then the density r to some inner core radius where the density is then assumed constant Observations do not comport with such a simple profile as reported by Navarro Frenk and White in a seminal paper The authors then remarked that a gently changing logarithmic slope for a density profile function could also accommodate approximately flat rotation curves over large scales They found the famous Navarro–Frenk–White profile which is consistent both with N body simulations and observations given by where the central density and the scale radius Rs are parameters that vary from halo to halo Because the slope of the density profile diverges at the center other alternative profiles have been proposed for example the Einasto profile which has exhibited better agreement with certain dark matter halo simulations Observations of orbit velocities in spiral galaxies suggest a mass structure according to with F the galaxy gravitational potential Since observations of galaxy rotation do not match the distribution expected from application of Kepler s laws they do not match the distribution of luminous matter This implies that spiral galaxies contain large amounts of dark matter or in alternative the existence of exotic physics in action on galactic scales The additional invisible component becomes progressively more conspicuous in each galaxy at outer radii and among galaxies in the less luminous ones clarification needed Cosmology tells us that about of the mass of the Universe is composed of dark matter a massive component which does not emit radiation but it dominates the gravitational potential of galaxies and cluster of galaxies Galaxies are baryonic condensations of stars and gas namely H and He that lie at the centers of much larger dark haloes of dark matter affected by a gravitational instability caused by primordial density fluctuations The main goal has become to understand the nature and the history of these ubiquitous dark haloes by investigating the properties of the galaxies they contain i e their luminosities kinematics sizes and morphologies The measurement of the kinematics their positions velocities and accelerations of the observable stars and gas has become a tool to investigate the nature of dark matter as to its content and distribution relative to that of the various baryonic components of those galaxies Further investigations edit The rotational dynamics of galaxies are well characterized by their position on the Tully–Fisher relation which shows that for spiral galaxies the rotational velocity is uniquely related to its total luminosity A consistent way to predict the rotational velocity of a spiral galaxy is to measure its bolometric luminosity and then read its rotation rate from its location on the Tully–Fisher diagram Conversely knowing the rotational velocity of a spiral galaxy gives its luminosity Thus the magnitude of the galaxy rotation is related to the galaxy s visible mass While precise fitting bulge disk and halo density profiles is a rather complicated process it is straightforward to model the observables of rotating galaxies through this relationship So while state of the art cosmological and galaxy formation simulations of dark matter with normal baryonic matter included can be matched to galaxy observations there is not yet any straightforward explanation as to why the observed scaling relationship exists Additionally detailed investigations of the rotation curves of low surface brightness galaxies LSB galaxies in the s and of their position on the Tully–Fisher relation showed that LSB galaxies had to have dark matter haloes that are more extended and less dense than those of HSB galaxies and thus surface brightness is related to the halo properties Such dark matter dominated dwarf galaxies may hold the key to solving the dwarf galaxy problem of structure formation Very importantly the analysis of the inner parts of low and high surface brightness galaxies showed that the shape of the rotation curves in the centre of dark matter dominated systems indicated a profile that differed from the NFW spatial mass distribution profile This so called cuspy halo problem is a persistent problem for the standard cold dark matter theory Simulations involving the feedback of stellar energy into the interstellar medium in order to alter the predicted dark matter distribution in the innermost regions of galaxies are frequently invoked in this context Alternatives to dark matter edit There have been a number of attempts to solve the problem of galaxy rotation by modifying gravity without invoking dark matter One of the most discussed is Modified Newtonian Dynamics MOND originally proposed by Mordehai Milgrom in which modifies the Newtonian force law at low accelerations to enhance the effective gravitational attraction MOND has had a considerable amount of success in predicting the rotation curves of low surface brightness galaxies matching the baryonic Tully–Fisher relation and the velocity dispersions of the small satellite galaxies of the Local Group These results are surprising in the context of dark matter which does not make the same predictions as MOND without considerable fine tuning citation needed MOND is not a relativistic theory although relativistic theories which reduce to MOND have been proposed such as tensor–vector–scalar gravity scalar–tensor–vector gravity STVG and the f R theory clarification needed of Capozziello and De Laurentis See also edit Vera Rubin Unsolved problems in physics Nonsymmetric gravitational theory Dark matter Long slit spectroscopy Notes References External links Introduction edit Celestial Sphere th century Brooklyn Museum Because astronomical objects are at such remote distances casual observation of the sky offers no information on the actual distances All objects seem equally far away as if fixed to the inside of a sphere of large but unknown radius which rotates from east to west overhead while underfoot the Earth seems to stand still For purposes of spherical astronomy which is concerned only with the directions to objects it makes no difference whether this is actually the case or if it is the Earth which rotates while the celestial sphere stands still The celestial sphere can be considered to be infinite in radius This means any point within it including that occupied by the observer can be considered the center It also means that all parallel lines be they millimetres apart or across the Solar System from each other will seem to intersect the sphere at a single point analogous to the vanishing point of graphical perspective All parallel planes will seem to intersect the sphere in a coincident great circle a vanishing circle Conversely observers looking toward the same point on an infinite radius celestial sphere will be looking along parallel lines and observers looking toward the same great circle along parallel planes On an infinite radius celestial sphere all observers see the same things in the same direction For some objects this is over simplified Objects which are relatively near to the observer for instance the Moon will seem to change position against the distant celestial sphere if the observer moves far enough say from one side of the Earth to the other This effect known as parallax can be represented as a small offset from a mean position The celestial sphere can be considered to be centered at the Earth s center the Sun s center or any other convenient location and offsets from positions referred to these centers can be calculated In this way astronomers can predict geocentric or heliocentric positions of objects on the celestial sphere without the need to calculate the individual geometry of any particular observer and the utility of the celestial sphere is maintained Individual observers can work out their own small offsets from the mean positions if necessary In many cases in astronomy the offsets are insignificant The celestial sphere can thus be thought of as a kind of astronomical shorthand and is applied very frequently by astronomers For instance the Astronomical Almanac for lists the apparent geocentric position of the Moon Jan at h Terrestrial Time in equatorial coordinates as right ascension h m s declination ° Implied in this position is that it is as projected onto the celestial sphere any observer at any location looking in that direction would see the geocentric Moon in the same place against the stars For many rough uses for instance calculating an approximate phase of the Moon this position as seen from the Earth s center is adequate For applications requiring precision for instance calculating the shadow path of an eclipse the Almanac gives formulae and methods for calculating the topocentric coordinates that is as seen from a particular place on the Earth s surface based on the geocentric position This greatly abbreviates the amount of detail necessary in such almanacs as each observer can handle their own specific circumstances Celestial coordinate systems edit These concepts are important for understanding celestial reference systems the methods in which the positions of objects in the sky are measured Certain reference lines and planes on Earth when projected onto the celestial sphere form the bases of the reference systems These include the Earth s equator axis and the Earth s orbit At their intersections with the celestial sphere these form the celestial equator the north and south celestial poles and the ecliptic respectively As the celestial sphere is considered infinite in radius all observers see the celestial equator celestial poles and ecliptic at the same place against the background stars Directions toward objects in the sky can be quantified by constructing from these bases celestial coordinate systems Similar to the terrestrial longitude and latitude the equatorial system of right ascension and declination specifies positions relative to the celestial equator and celestial poles The ecliptic system of celestial longitude and celestial latitude specifies positions relative to the Earth s orbit There are more coordinate systems besides the equatorial right ascension declination system and the ecliptic system History edit The ancients assumed the literal truth of stars attached to a celestial sphere revolving about the Earth in one day and a fixed Earth The Eudoxan planetary model on which the Aristotelian and Ptolemaic models were based was the first geometric explanation for the wandering of the classical planets The outer most of these crystal spheres was thought to carry the fixed stars Eudoxus used concentric spherical solids to answer Plato s challenge By the assumption of what uniform and orderly motions can the apparent motions of the planets be accounted for Star globe edit Celestial globe by Jost Bürgi Main articles Star chart Armillary sphere and Celestial globe A celestial sphere can also refer to a physical model of the celestial sphere or celestial globe Such globes map the constellations on the outside of a sphere resulting in a mirror image of the constellations as seen from Earth The oldest surviving example of such an artifact is the globe of the Farnese Atlas sculpture a nd century copy of an older Hellenistic period ca BCE work Bodies other than Earth edit See also International Celestial Reference System Observers on other worlds would of course see objects in that sky under much the same conditions as if projected onto a dome Coordinate systems based on the sky of that world could be constructed These could be based on the equivalent ecliptic poles and equator although the reasons for building a system that way are as much historic as technical See also edit Celestial coordinate system Celestial spheres Firmament History of astronomy Sky Spherical astronomy Stellar parallax a type of short term motion of distant stars Proper motion a type of longer term motion of distant stars Semi major axis km Orbital period d h m Main article Moon Full moon as seen from Earth s Northern Hemisphere Details of the Earth–Moon system showing the radius of each object and the Earth–Moon barycenter The Moon s axis is located by Cassini s third law The Moon is a relatively large terrestrial planet like satellite with a diameter about one quarter of Earth s It is the largest moon in the Solar System relative to the size of its planet although Charon is larger relative to the dwarf planet Pluto The natural satellites of other planets are also referred to as moons after Earth s The gravitational attraction between Earth and the Moon causes tides on Earth The same effect on the Moon has led to its tidal locking its rotation period is the same as the time it takes to orbit Earth As a result it always presents the same face to the planet As the Moon orbits Earth different parts of its face are illuminated by the Sun leading to the lunar phases the dark part of the face is separated from the light part by the solar terminator Due to their tidal interaction the Moon recedes from Earth at the rate of approximately mm yr Over millions of years these tiny modifications—and the lengthening of Earth s day by about µs yr—add up to significant changes During the Devonian period for example approximately mya there were days in a year with each day lasting hours The Moon may have dramatically affected the development of life by moderating the planet s climate Paleontological evidence and computer simulations show that Earth s axial tilt is stabilized by tidal interactions with the Moon Some theorists think that without this stabilization against the torques applied by the Sun and planets to Earth s equatorial bulge the rotational axis might be chaotically unstable exhibiting chaotic changes over millions of years as appears to be the case for Mars Viewed from Earth the Moon is just far enough away to have almost the same apparent sized disk as the Sun The angular size or solid angle of these two bodies match because although the Sun s diameter is about times as large as the Moon s it is also times more distant This allows total and annular solar eclipses to occur on Earth The most widely accepted theory of the Moon s origin the giant impact theory states that it formed from the collision of a Mars size protoplanet called Theia with the early Earth This hypothesis explains among other things the Moon

s relative lack of iron and volatile elements and the fact that its composition is nearly identical to that of Earth s crust Asteroids and artificial satellites The International Space Station is an artificial satellite in orbit around Earth Earth has at least five co orbital asteroids including Cruithne and AA A trojan asteroid companion TK is librating around the leading Lagrange triangular point L in the Earth s orbit around the Sun The tiny near Earth asteroid RH makes close approaches to the Earth–Moon system roughly every twenty years During these approaches it can orbit Earth for brief periods of time As of September update there were operational human made satellites orbiting Earth There are also inoperative satellites including Vanguard the oldest satellite currently in orbit and over pieces of space debris Earth s largest artificial satellite is the International Space Station Cultural and historical viewpointMain article Earth in culture The standard astronomical symbol of Earth consists of a cross circumscribed by a circle representing the four quadrants of the world Human cultures have developed many views of the planet Earth is sometimes personified as a deity In many cultures it is a mother goddess that is also the primary fertility deity and by the mid th century the Gaia Principle compared Earth s environments and life as a single self regulating organism leading to broad stabilization of the conditions of habitability Creation myths in many religions involve the creation of Earth by a supernatural deity or deities Scientific investigation has resulted in several culturally transformative shifts in our view of the planet In the West belief in a flat Earth was displaced by the idea of spherical Earth credited to Pythagoras in the th century BC Earth was further believed to be the center of the universe until the th century when scientists first theorized that it was a moving object comparable to the other planets in the Solar System Due to the efforts of influential Christian scholars and clerics such as James Ussher who sought to determine the age of Earth through analysis of genealogies in Scripture Westerners prior to the th century generally believed Earth to be a few thousand years old at most It was only during the th century that geologists realized Earth s age was at least many millions of years Lord Kelvin used thermodynamics to estimate the age of Earth to be between million and million years in sparking a vigorous debate on the subject it was only when radioactivity and radioactive dating were discovered in the late th and early th centuries that a reliable mechanism for determining Earth s age was established proving the planet to be billions of years old The perception of Earth shifted again in the th century when humans first viewed it from orbit and especially with photographs of Earth returned by the Apollo program Earthrise the first photograph of Earth as a celestial body taken by astronauts on board Apollo The Blue Marble photograph of Earth taken by the Apollo lunar mission in See alsoCelestial sphere Earth physical characteristics tables Earth science Earth system science Timeline of the far future Bohemian lifestyle Je Me Souviens De Tout Fiction TV Personal life Legacy Autobiography Albums Notable songs Partial filmography References Sources External links Early life and family edit Juliette Gréco was born in Montpellier to a Corsican father and a mother who became active in the Résistance in the Hérault département of southern France She was raised by her maternal grandparents Gréco also became involved in the Résistance and was caught but not deported because of her young age She moved to Saint Germain des Prés in after her mother left the country for Indochina citation needed Bohemian lifestyle edit Gréco became a devotee of the bohemian fashion of some intellectuals of post war France Jean Paul Sartre said of Gréco that she had millions of poems in her voice She was known to many of the writers and artists working in Saint Germain des Prés such as Jean Paul Sartre and Boris Vian this quote needs a citation That was the reason she had got nickname la Muse de l existentialisme Gréco spent the post liberation years frequenting the Saint Germain cafes immersing herself in political and philosophical Bohemian culture As a regular figure at music and poetry venues like Le Tabou on Rue Dauphine Greco became acquainted with Miles Davis and Jean Cocteau even being given a role in Cocteau s film Orphée in That same year she began a new singing career with a number of well known French writers writing lyrics Raymond Queneau s Si tu t imagines was one of her earliest songs to become popular Je Me Souviens De Tout edit Juliette Gréco in In her latest album Je Me Souviens De Tout was released To mark the occasion Gréco accompanied by her husband Gérard Jouannest on the piano and Jean Louis Matinier on the accordion gave four concerts at the Théâtre des Champs Élysées in early June Fiction TV edit In the late s she featured in the TV serial Belphegor Phantom of the Louvre This gloomy character was so strongly connected with Gréco that it accompanied her for the rest of her life and in she was included in the cast of the movie remake with the same title Belphegor Phantom of the Louvre citation needed Personal life edit She married three times to actor Philippe Lemaire – one daughter Laurence Marie Lemaire b actor Michel Piccoli – and pianist Gérard Jouannest since Legacy edit Juliette Gréco Gréco was portrayed by actress Anna Mouglalis in the film Gainsbourg Vie héroïque The Canadian band Library Voices described Gréco s relationship with Miles Davis in their song Be My Juliette Gréco Paris from their album Summer of Lust Autobiography edit Jujube published in French Stock Albums edit Si tu t imagines a poem by Raymond Queneau set to music by Joseph Kosma La Fourmi a poem by Robert Desnos set to music by Joseph Kosma Je suis comme je suis lyrics by Jacques Prévert set to music by Joseph Kosma Les Feuilles mortes lyrics and music by Joseph Kosma for the film Les Portes de la nuit by Marcel Carné Sous le ciel de Paris lyrics by Jean Dréjac music by Hubert Giraud for the film Sous le ciel de Paris by Julien Duvivier Je hais les dimanches lyrics by Charles Aznavour music by Florence Véran La Fiancée du pirate extract from The Threepenny Opera French adaptation by André Mauprey from the lyrics of Bertolt Brecht and music of Kurt Weill Coin de rue paroles et musique de Charles Trenet Chanson pour l Auvergnat paroles et musique de Georges Brassens Il n y a plus d après paroles et musique de Guy Béart Jolie Môme paroles et musique de Léo Ferré C était bien Le P tit bal perdu paroles de Robert Nyel et musique de Gaby Verlor Accordéon paroles et musique de Serge Gainsbourg Paris canaille paroles et musique de Léo Ferré La Javanaise paroles et musique de Serge Gainsbourg Un petit poisson un petit oiseau paroles de Jean Max Rivière et musique de Gérard Bourgeois Déshabillez moi paroles de Robert Nyel et musique de Gaby Verlor Les Pingouins paroles et musique de Frédéric Botton La Chanson des vieux amants paroles de Jacques Brel et musique de Gérard Jouannest J arrive paroles de Jacques Brel et musique de Gérard Jouannest Mon fils chante paroles de Maurice Fanon et musique de Gérard Jouannest Non monsieur je n ai pas vingt ans paroles d Henri Gougaud et musique de Gérard Jouannest Le temps des cerises poème de Jean Baptiste Clément et musique d Antoine Renard Ne me quitte pas paroles et musique de Jacques Brel L Éternel féminin – Intégrale en CD Mercury Je me Souviens De Tout Ça se Traverse et C est Beau Gréco chante Brel Notable songs edit Si tu t imagines Je suis comme je suis Les Dames de la poste Je hais les dimanches Les feuilles mortes Bonjour tristesse On n oublie rien For other uses see The Beatles disambiguation and Fab Four disambiguation The Beatles The Fab Four Beatles lineup in Top Lennon McCartney Bottom Harrison Starr Background information Origin Liverpool England Genres Rock pop Years active – Labels EMI Polydor Parlophone Swan Vee Jay Capitol United Artists Apple Associated acts The Quarrymen Billy Preston Plastic Ono Band Website thebeatles com Past members John Lennon Paul McCartney George Harrison Ringo Starr See members section for others The Beatles were an English rock band formed in Liverpool in With members John Lennon Paul McCartney George Harrison and Ringo Starr they became widely regarded as the greatest and most influential act of the rock era Rooted in skiffle beat and s rock and roll the Beatles later experimented with several genres ranging from pop ballads and Indian music to psychedelia and hard rock often incorporating classical elements in innovative ways In the early s their enormous popularity first emerged as Beatlemania but as the group s music grew in sophistication led by primary songwriters Lennon and McCartney they came to be perceived as an embodiment of the ideals shared by the era s sociocultural revolutions The Beatles built their reputation playing clubs in Liverpool and Hamburg over a three year period from during which Stuart Sutcliffe briefly served as a fifth member until his death The core of Lennon McCartney and Harrison went through a succession of drummers most notably Pete Best before settling on Starr Manager Brian Epstein moulded them into a professional act and producer George Martin enhanced their musical potential They gained popularity in the United Kingdom after their first hit Love Me Do in late They acquired the nickname the Fab Four as Beatlemania grew in Britain over the following year and by early they had become international stars leading the British Invasion of the United States pop market From onwards the Beatles produced what many consider their finest material including the innovative and widely influential albums Rubber Soul Revolver Sgt Pepper s Lonely Hearts Club Band The Beatles commonly known as the White Album and Abbey Road After their break up in they each enjoyed successful musical careers of varying lengths McCartney and Starr the surviving members remain musically active Lennon was shot and killed in December and Harrison died of lung cancer in November According to the RIAA the Beatles are the best selling music artists in the United States with million certified units They have had more number one albums on the British charts and sold more singles in the UK than any other act In the group topped Billboard magazine s list of the all time most successful Hot artists as of they hold the record for most number one hits on the Hot chart with twenty They have received ten Grammy Awards an Academy Award for Best Original Song Score and fifteen Ivor Novello Awards Collectively included in Time magazine s compilation of the twentieth century s most influential people they are the best selling band in history with estimated sales of over million records worldwide The group was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in with all four being inducted individually as well from to Contents History – Formation Hamburg and UK popularity – Beatlemania and touring years Please Please Me and With the Beatles British Invasion A Hard Day s Night Beatles for Sale Help and Rubber Soul – Controversy studio years and break up Events leading up to final tour Revolver and Sgt Pepper s Lonely Hearts Club Band Magical Mystery Tour the White Album and Yellow Submarine Abbey Road Let It Be and break up –present After the break up s s s s s Musical style and development Influences Genres Contribution of George Martin In the studio Legacy Awards and achievements Members Discography Song catalogue Notes Citations Sources Further reading External links History – Formation Hamburg and UK popularityHistory of the Beatles The Quarrymen In Hamburg At The Cavern Club Decca audition Beatlemania in the United Kingdom North American releases In the United States More popular than Jesus Studio years In India Break up Reunions Line ups Religious views Timeline v t e In March John Lennon then aged sixteen formed a skiffle group with several friends from Quarry Bank school They briefly called themselves the Blackjacks before changing their name to the Quarrymen after discovering that a respected local group was already using the other name Fifteen year old Paul McCartney joined as a rhythm guitarist shortly after he and Lennon met that July In February McCartney invited his friend George Harrison to watch the band The fourteen year old auditioned for Lennon impressing him with his playing but Lennon initially thought Harrison was too young to join them After a month of Harrison s persistence they enlisted him as their lead guitarist By January Lennon s Quarry Bank friends had left the group and he began studies at the Liverpool College of Art The three guitarists billing themselves at least three times as Johnny and the Moondogs were playing rock and roll whenever they could find a drummer Lennon s art school friend Stuart Sutcliffe who had recently sold one of his paintings and was persuaded to purchase a bass guitar joined in January and it was he who suggested changing the band s name to Beatals as a tribute to Buddy Holly and the Crickets They used the name until May when they became the Silver Beetles before undertaking a brief tour of Scotland as the backing group for pop singer and fellow Liverpudlian Johnny Gentle By early July they had changed their name to the Silver Beatles and by the middle of August to the Beatles Allan Williams the Beatles unofficial manager arranged a residency for them in Hamburg but lacking a full time drummer they auditioned and hired Pete Best in mid August The band now a five piece left four days later contracted to club owner Bruno Koschmider for what would be a ½ month residency Beatles historian Mark Lewisohn writes They pulled into Hamburg at dusk on August the time when the red light area comes to life flashing neon lights screamed out the various entertainment on offer while scantily clad women sat unabashed in shop windows waiting for business opportunities Koschmider had converted a couple of strip clubs in the district into music venues and he initially placed the Beatles at the Indra Club After closing the Indra due to noise complaints he moved them to the Kaiserkeller in October When he learned they had been performing at the rival Top Ten Club in breach of their contract he gave the band one month s termination notice and reported the underage Harrison who had obtained permission to stay in Hamburg by lying to the German authorities about his age The authorities arranged for Harrison s deportation in late November One week later Koschmider had McCartney and Best arrested for arson after they set fire to a condom in a concrete corridor the authorities deported them Lennon returned to Liverpool in early December while Sutcliffe remained in Hamburg through late February with his German fiancée Astrid Kirchherr who took the first semi professional photos of the Beatles During the next two years the Beatles were resident for periods in Hamburg where they used Preludin both recreationally and to maintain their energy through all night performances In during their second Hamburg engagement Kirchherr cut Sutcliffe s hair in the exi existentialist style later adopted by the other Beatles When Sutcliffe decided to leave the band early that year and resume his art studies in Germany McCartney took up the bass Producer Bert Kaempfert contracted what was now a four piece group through June and he used them as Tony Sheridan s backing band on a series of recordings for Polydor Records As part of the sessions the Beatles were signed to Polydor for one year Credited to Tony Sheridan the Beat Brothers the single My Bonnie recorded in June and released four months later reached number on the Musikmarkt chart After the Beatles completed their second Hamburg residency they enjoyed increasing popularity in Liverpool with the growing Merseybeat movement However they were also growing tired of the monotony of numerous appearances at the same clubs night after night In November during one of the group s frequent performances at the Cavern Club they encountered Brian Epstein a local record store owner and music columnist He later recalled I immediately liked what I heard They were fresh and they were honest and they had what I thought was a sort of presence a star quality Epstein courted the band over the next couple of months and they appointed him as their manager in January Throughout early and mid Epstein sought to free the Beatles from their contractual obligations to Bert Kaempfert Productions He eventually negotiated a one month early release from their contract in exchange for one last recording session in Hamburg Tragedy greeted them on their return to Germany in April when a distraught Kirchherr met them at the airport with news of Sutcliffe s death the previous day from what would later be determined to have been a brain hemorrhage Epstein began negotiations with record labels for a recording contract In order to secure a UK record contract Epstein negotiated an early end to the band s contract with Polydor in exchange for more recordings backing Tony Sheridan After an early February audition Decca Records rejected the band with the comment Guitar groups are on the way out Mr Epstein However three months later producer George Martin signed the Beatles to EMI s Parlophone label Abbey Road Studios main entranceMartin s first recording session with the Beatles took place at EMI s Abbey Road Studios in London on June Martin immediately complained to Epstein about Best s poor drumming and suggested they use a session drummer in his place Already contemplating Best s dismissal the Beatles replaced him in mid August with Ringo Starr who left Rory Storm and the Hurricanes to join them A September session at EMI yielded a recording of Love Me Do featuring Starr on drums but a dissatisfied Martin hired drummer Andy White for the band s third session a week later which produced recordings of Love Me Do Please Please Me and P S I Love You Martin initially selected the Starr version of Love Me Do for the band s first single though subsequent re pressings featured the White version with Starr on tambourine Released in early October Love Me Do peaked at number seventeen on the Record Retailer chart Their television debut came later that month with a live performance on the regional news programme People and Places After Martin suggested rerecording Please Please Me at a faster tempo a studio session in late November yielded that recording of which Martin accurately predicted You ve just made your first No In December the Beatles concluded their fifth and final Hamburg residency By they had agreed that all four band members would contribute vocals to their albums – including Starr despite his restricted vocal range to validate his standing in the group Lennon and McCartney had established a songwriting partnership and as the band s success grew their dominant collaboration limited Harrison s opportunities as a lead vocalist Epstein in an effort to maximise the Beatles commercial potential encouraged them to adopt a professional approach to performing Lennon recalled him saying Look if you really want to get in these bigger places you re going to have to change – stop eating on stage stop swearing stop smoking Lennon said We used to dress how we liked on and off stage He d tell us that jeans were not particularly smart and could we possibly manage to wear proper trousers but he didn t want us suddenly looking square He d let us have our own sense of individuality – Beatlemania and touring yearsPlease Please Me and With the Beatles Their logo was based on an impromptu sketch by instrument retailer and designer Ivor Arbiter On February the Beatles recorded ten songs during a single studio session for their debut LP Please Please Me The album was supplemented by the four tracks already released on their first two singles Martin originally considered recording the Beatles debut LP live at the Cavern Club but after deciding that the building s acoustics were inadequate he elected to simulate a live album with minimal production in a single marathon session at Abbey Road After the moderate success of Love Me Do the single Please Please Me met with a more emphatic reception Released in January two months ahead of the album of the same name the song reached number one on every chart in London except Record Retailer where it stalled at number two Recalling how the Beatles rushed to deliver a debut album bashing out Please Please Me in a day AllMusic s Stephen Thomas Erlewine comments Decades after its release the album still sounds fresh precisely because of its intense origins Lennon said little thought went into composition at the time he and McCartney were just writing songs à la Everly Brothers à la Buddy Holly pop songs with no more thought of them than that – to create a sound And the words were almost irrelevant Released in March the album initiated a run during which eleven of their twelve studio albums released in the United Kingdom through reached number one The band s third single From Me to You came out in April and was also a chart topping hit starting an almost unbroken string of seventeen British number one singles for the Beatles including all but one of the eighteen they released over the next six years Issued in August the band s fourth single She Loves You achieved the fastest sales of any record in the UK up to that time selling three quarters of a million copies in under four weeks It became their first single to sell a million copies and remained the biggest selling record in the UK until when Mull of Kintyre by McCartney s post Beatles band Wings surpassed it in sales Their commercial success brought increased media exposure to which the Beatles responded with an irreverent and comical attitude that defied the expectations of pop musicians at the time inspiring even more interest The band toured the UK three times in the first half of the year a four week tour that began in February the Beatles s first nationwide preceded three week tours in March and May–June As their popularity spread a frenzied adulation of the group took hold Greeted with riotous enthusiasm by screaming fans the press dubbed the phenomenon Beatlemania Although not billed as tour leaders the Beatles overshadowed American acts Tommy Roe and Chris Montez during the February engagements and assumed top billing by audience demand something no British act had previously accomplished while touring with artists from the US A similar situation arose during their May–June tour with Roy Orbison McCartney Harrison Swedish pop singer Lill Babs and Lennon on the set of the Swedish television show Drop In October In late October the Beatles began a five day tour of Sweden their first time abroad since the final Hamburg engagement of December On their return to the UK on October according to Lewisohn several hundred screaming fans greeted them in heavy rain at Heathrow Airport Around to journalists and photographers as well as representatives from the BBC also joined the airport reception the first of more than such events The next day the band began its fourth tour of Britain within nine months this one scheduled for six weeks In mid November as Beatlemania intensified police resorted to using high pressure water hoses to control the crowd before a concert in Plymouth Please Please Me maintained the top position on the Record Retailer chart for weeks only to be displaced by its follow up With the Beatles the release of which EMI delayed until sales of Please Please Me had subsided In late November EMI released With the Beatles to record advance orders of copies and the LP topped a half million albums sold in one week Recorded between July and October With the Beatles made better use of studio production techniques than its predecessor It held the top spot for weeks with a chart life of weeks Erlewine described the LP as a sequel of the highest order – one that betters the original In a reversal of then standard practice EMI released the album ahead of the impending single I Want to Hold Your Hand with the song excluded to maximise the single s sales The album caught the attention of music critic William Mann of The Times who suggested that Lennon and McCartney were the outstanding English composers of The newspaper published a series of articles in which Mann offered detailed analyses of the music lending it respectability With the Beatles became the second album in UK chart history to sell a million copies a figure previously reached only by the South Pacific soundtrack When writing the sleeve notes for the album the band s press officer Tony Barrow used the superlative the fabulous foursome which the media widely adopted as the Fab Four British Invasion EMI s American subsidiary Capitol Records hindered the Beatles releases in the United States for more than a year by initially declining to issue their music including their first three singles Concurrent negotiations with the independent US label Vee Jay led to the release of some of the songs in but not all Vee Jay finished preparation for the album Introducing The Beatles culled from most of the songs of Parlophone s Please Please Me but a management shake up led to the album not being released nb Then when it surfaced that the label did not report royalties on their sales the licence Vee Jay signed with EMI was voided A new licence was granted to the Swan label for the single She Loves You but legal issues with royalties and publishing rights proved an obstacle to the successful marketing of the group in the US American chart success began after Epstein arranged for a US marketing campaign and secured the support of disc jockey Carrol James who first played the band s records in mid December Late that same month the Beatles were introduced in the Tidewater area of Virginia by Gene Loving of radio station WGH accompanied by a full marketing campaign including Beatles shirt giveaways Within days almost every other song played on the station was a Beatles recording It was not until the end of first week of January that their records were played in New York City also accompanied by a major marketing campaign and with similar play frequency and then the rest of the country initiating their music s spread across US radio This caused an increase in demand leading Capitol to rush release I Want to Hold Your Hand later that month Issued on December with the band s previously scheduled debut there just weeks away I Want to Hold Your Hand sold a million copies becoming a number one hit in the US by mid January In its wake Vee Jay released Introducing The Beatles to go along with Capitol s debut album Meet the Beatles while Swan reactivated production of She Loves You The Beatles arrive at John F Kennedy International Airport February On February the Beatles left the United Kingdom with an estimated fans gathered at Heathrow waving and screaming as the aircraft took off Upon landing at New York s John F Kennedy Airport an uproarious crowd estimated at greeted them They gave their first live US television performance two days later on The Ed Sullivan Show watched by approximately million viewers in over million households or per cent of the American population Biographer Jonathan Gould writes that according to the Nielsen rating service it was the largest audience that had ever been recorded for an American television program The next morning the Beatles awoke to a negative critical consensus in the US but a day later their first US concert saw Beatlemania erupt at Washington Coliseum Back in New York the following day the Beatles met with another strong reception during two shows at Carnegie Hall The band then flew to Florida and appeared on the weekly Ed Sullivan Show a second time before another million viewers before returning to the UK on February A Hard Day s NightCapitol Records lack of interest throughout had not gone unnoticed and a competitor United Artists Records encouraged their film division to offer the group a three motion picture deal primarily for the commercial potential of the soundtracks Directed by Richard Lester A Hard Day s Night involved the band for six weeks in March–April as they played themselves in a mock documentary The film premiered in London and New York in July and August respectively and was an international success with some critics drawing comparison with the Marx Brothers According to Erlewine the accompanying soundtrack album A Hard Day s Night saw them truly coming into their own as a band All of the disparate influences on their first two albums had coalesced into a bright joyous original sound filled with ringing guitars and irresistible melodies That ringing guitar sound was primarily the product of Harrison s string electric Rickenbacker a prototype given to him by the manufacturer which made its debut on the record nb During the week of April the Beatles held twelve positions on the Billboard Hot singles chart including the top five nb Their popularity generated unprecedented interest in British music and a number of other UK acts subsequently made their own American debuts successfully touring over the next three years in what was termed the British Invasion Their hairstyle unusually long for the era and mocked by many adults became an emblem of rebellion to the burgeoning youth culture McCartney Harrison and Lennon perform on Dutch television in Touring internationally in June and July the Beatles staged shows over days in Denmark the Netherlands Hong Kong Australia and New Zealand nb In August they returned to the US with a concert tour of cities Generating intense interest once again the month long tour attracted between and fans to each minute performance in cities from San Francisco to New York In August journalist Al Aronowitz arranged for the Beatles to meet Bob Dylan Visiting the band in their New York hotel suite Dylan introduced them to cannabis Gould points out the musical and cultural significance of this meeting before which the musicians respective fanbases were perceived as inhabiting two separate subcultural worlds Dylan s audience of college kids with artistic or intellectual leanings a dawning political and social idealism and a mildly bohemian style contrasted with their fans veritable teenyboppers – kids in high school or grade school whose lives were totally wrapped up in the commercialised popular culture of television radio pop records fan magazines and teen fashion They were seen as idolaters not idealists Within six months of the meeting Gould writes Lennon would be making records on which he openly imitated Dylan s nasal drone brittle strum and introspective vocal persona Within a year Dylan would proceed with the help of a five piece group and a Fender Stratocaster electric guitar to shake the monkey of folk authenticity permanently off his back the distinctions between the folk and rock audiences would have nearly evaporated and the group s audience was showing signs of growing up nb Beatles for Sale Help and Rubber SoulAccording to Gould Beatles for Sale the Beatles fourth studio LP evidenced a growing conflict between the commercial pressures of their global success and their creative ambitions They had intended the album recorded between August and October to continue the format established by A Hard Day s Night which unlike the group s first two LPs contained only original songs The band had nearly exhausted their backlog of songs on the previous album however and given the challenges constant international touring posed to their songwriting efforts Lennon admitted Material s becoming a hell of a problem As a result six covers from their extensive repertoire were chosen to complete the album Released in early December its eight original compositions stood out demonstrating the growing maturity of the Lennon–McCartney songwriting partnership Together in celebrating a Grammy win In early while they were his guests for dinner Lennon and Harrison s dentist secretly added LSD to their coffee Lennon described the experience It was just terrifying but it was fantastic I was pretty stunned for a month or two He and Harrison subsequently became regular users of the drug joined by Starr on at least one occasion McCartney was initially reluctant to try it but eventually did so in late He became the first Beatle to discuss LSD publicly declaring in a magazine interview that it opened my eyes and made me a better more honest more tolerant member of society Controversy erupted in June when Queen Elizabeth II appointed all four Beatles Members of the Order of the British Empire MBE after Prime Minister Harold Wilson nominated them for the award In protest – the honour was at that time primarily bestowed upon military veterans and civic leaders – some conservative MBE recipients returned their own insignia The US trailer for Help with from the rear Harrison McCartney Lennon and largely obscured StarrReleased in July the Beatles second film Help was again directed by Lester Described as mainly a relentless spoof of Bond it inspired a mixed response among both reviewers and the band McCartney said Help was great but it wasn t our film – we were sort of guest stars It was fun but basically as an idea for a film it was a bit wrong The soundtrack was dominated by Lennon who wrote and sang lead on most of its songs including the two singles Help and Ticket to Ride The accompanying album the group s fifth studio LP contained all original material save for two covers Act Naturally and Dizzy Miss Lizzy they were the last covers the band would include on an album with the exception of Let It Be s brief rendition of the traditional Liverpool folk song Maggie Mae The band expanded their use of vocal overdubs on Help and incorporated classical instruments into some arrangements notably a string quartet on the pop ballad Yesterday Composed by McCartney Yesterday would inspire the most recorded cover versions of any song ever written The group s third US tour opened with a performance before a world record crowd of at New York s Shea Stadium on August – perhaps the most famous of all Beatles concerts in Lewisohn s description A further nine successful concerts followed in other American cities At a show in Atlanta the Beatles gave one of the first live performances ever to make use of a foldback system of on stage monitor speakers Towards the end of the tour they were granted an audience with Elvis Presley a foundational musical influence on the band who invited them to his home in Beverly Hills September saw the launch of an American Saturday morning cartoon series The Beatles that echoed A Hard Day s Night s slapstick antics over its two year original run The series was a historical milestone as the first weekly television series to feature animated versions of real living people Norwegian Wood This Bird Has Flown Sorry your browser either has JavaScript disabled or does not have any supported player You can download the clip or download a player to play the clip in your browser Sample of Norwegian Wood from Rubber Soul Harrison s use of a sitar on this song is representative of the Beatles incorporation of unconventional instrumentation into rock music Problems playing this file See media help In mid October the Beatles entered the recording studio for the first time when making an album they had an extended period without other major commitments Until this time according to George Martin we had been making albums rather like a collection of singles Now we were really beginning to think about albums as a bit of art on their own Released in December Rubber Soul has been hailed by critics as a major step forward in the maturity and complexity of the band s music Their thematic reach was beginning to expand as they embraced deeper aspects of romance and philosophy Biographers Peter Brown and Steven Gaines attribute the new musical direction to the Beatles now habitual use of marijuana an assertion confirmed by the band – Lennon referred to it as the pot album and Starr said Grass was really influential in a lot of our changes especially with the writers And because they were writing different material we were playing differently After Help s foray into the world of classical music with flutes and strings Harrison s introduction of a sitar on Norwegian Wood This Bird Has Flown marked a further progression outside the traditional boundaries of popular music As their lyrics grew more artful fans began to study them for deeper meaning Of Norwegian Wood Lennon commented I was trying to be sophisticated in writing about an affair but in such a smokescreen way that you couldn t tell While many of Rubber Soul s more notable songs were the product of Lennon and McCartney s collaborative songwriting it also featured distinct compositions from each though they continued to share official credit The song In My Life of which each later claimed lead authorship is considered a highlight of the entire Lennon–McCartney catalogue Harrison called Rubber Soul his favourite album and Starr referred to it as the departure record McCartney has said We d had our cute period and now it was time to expand However recording engineer Norman Smith later stated that the studio sessions revealed signs of growing conflict within the group – the clash between John and Paul was becoming obvious he wrote and as far as Paul was concerned George could do no right In Rolling Stone ranked Rubber Soul fifth among The Greatest Albums of All Time and AllMusic s Richie Unterberger describes it as one of the classic folk rock records – Controversy studio years and break upEvents leading up to final tourCapitol Records from December when it began issuing Beatles recordings for the US market exercised complete control over format compiling distinct US albums from the band s recordings and issuing songs of their choosing as singles It was not until Sgt Pepper s Lonely Hearts Club Band in that a Beatles album was released with identical track listings in both the UK and the US In June Yesterday and Today one of Capitol s compilation albums caused an uproar with its cover which portrayed the grinning Beatles dressed in butcher s overalls accompanied by raw meat and mutilated plastic baby dolls It has been incorrectly suggested that this was meant as a satirical response to the way Capitol had butchered the US versions of their albums Thousands of copies of the LP had a new cover pasted over the original an unpeeled first state copy fetched at a December auction In England meanwhile Harrison met sitar maestro Ravi Shankar who agreed to train him on the instrument During a tour of the Philippines the month after the Yesterday and Today furore the Beatles unintentionally snubbed the nation s first lady Imelda Marcos who had expected them to attend a breakfast reception at the Presidential Palace When presented with the invitation Epstein politely declined on the band members behalf as it had never been his policy to accept such official invitations They soon found that the Marcos regime was unaccustomed to taking no for an answer The resulting riots endangered the group and they escaped the country with difficulty Immediately afterwards the band members visited India for the first time Almost as soon as they returned home the Beatles faced a fierce backlash from US religious and social conservatives as well as the Ku Klux Klan over a comment Lennon had made in a March interview with British reporter Maureen Cleave Christianity will go Lennon had said It will vanish and shrink I needn t argue about that I m right and I will be proved right We re more popular than Jesus now I don t know which will go first rock n roll or Christianity Jesus was alright but his disciples were thick and ordinary It s them twisting it that ruins it for me The comment went virtually unnoticed in England but when US teenage fan magazine Datebook printed it five months later – on the eve of the group s August US tour – it sparked a controversy with Christians in the American Bible Belt The Vatican issued a protest and bans on Beatles records were imposed by Spanish and Dutch stations and South Africa s national broadcasting service Epstein accused Datebook of having taken Lennon s words out of context at a press conference Lennon pointed out If I d said television was more popular than Jesus I might have got away with it Lennon claimed that he was referring to how other people viewed their success but at the prompting of reporters he concluded If you want me to apologise if that will make you happy then okay I m sorry In the era of toleration Mick Jagger has supported the words of John Lennon on this issue in some meaning In Jagger said