each letter and the spacing between them was carefully designed for maximum clarity and simplicity without any decorative flourishes emphasizing the Roman taste for restraint and order This conception of what later became the art of typography remains of fundamental importance down to the present day Victory columns edit Further information List of Roman victory columns Significant buildings and areas edit following outline is an overview and topical guide to architecture Architecture – the process and the product of designing and constructing buildings Architectural works with a certain indefinable combination of design quality and external circumstances may become cultural symbols and or be considered works of art Contents hide What type of thing is architecture Definitions of architecture Roles in architecture People engaged in architecture Architectural styles Specialist subclassifications of architecture Architectural theory Architectural terms Regional architecture History of architecture Buildings Building construction Materials Structural elements Architectural education Architectural practice Architecture prizes Related fields References External links

What type of thing is architecture edit Architecture can be described as all of the following Academic discipline – focused study in one academic field or profession A discipline incorporates expertise people projects communities challenges studies inquiry and research areas that are strongly associated with the given discipline Buildings – buildings and similar structures the product of architecture are referred to as architecture One of the arts – as an art form architecture is an outlet of human expression that is usually influenced by culture and which in turn helps to change culture Architecture is a physical manifestation of the internal human creative impulse Fine art – in Western European academic traditions fine art is art developed primarily for aesthetics distinguishing it from applied art that also has to serve some practical function The word "fine" here does not so much denote the quality of the artwork in question but the purity of the discipline according to traditional Western European canons Science – systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe A science is a branch of science or a discipline of science It's a way of pursuing knowledge not only the knowledge itself Applied science – branch of science that applies existing scientific knowledge to develop more practical applications such as technology or inventions Definitions of architecture edit Architecture is variously defined in conflicting ways highlighting the difficulty of describing the scope of the subject precisely A general term to describe buildings and other physical structures – although not all buildings are generally considered to be architecture and infrastructure bridges roads etc is civil engineering not architecture The art and science or the action and process of designing and constructing buildings The design activity of the architect the profession of designing buildings A building designed by an architect the end product of architectural design A building whose design transcends mere function a unifying or coherent form or structure The expression of thought in building A group or body of buildings in a particular style A particular style or way of designing buildings Some key quotations on the subject of architecture Vitruvius defined the essential qualities of architecture as "firmness commodity and delight" Johann Wolfgang von Goethe "I call architecture frozen music" Walter Gropius "Architecture begins where engineering ends" Le Corbusier "A house is a machine for living in" Louis Sullivan " form ever follows function This is the law" usually quoted as the architectural mantra "form follows function" Mies van der Rohe "Less is more" Robert Venturi "Less is a bore" Roles in architecture edit Professionals involved in planning designing and constructing buildings include Architect – a person trained in the planning design and supervision of building construction Enterprise architect – Intern architect – Landscape architect – Naval architect – Project architect – State architect – Systems architect – Architectural designer – generally a designer involved in architecture but not qualified as an architect Architectural engineer – Architectural technologist or building technologist – professional trained in architectural technology building design and construction and who provides building design services and solutions Building control officer – Building inspector – Clerk of works – Drafter or draughtsman – person trained in drawing up architectural drawings Garden designer – Site manager – Surveyor – Chartered Building Surveyor – People engaged in architecture edit List of architects List of architecture firms List of architectural historians Architecture critics Architectural styles edit Architectural style – a specific way of building characterized by the features that make it notable A style may include such elements as form method of construction materials and regional character Influential contemporary and relatively recent styles include Modern architecture – generally characterized by simplification of form and the absence of applied ornament Postmodern architecture – has been described as the return of "wit ornament and reference" to architecture in response to the formalism of the International Style of modernism Deconstructivism – based on the more general theory of deconstruction a design style characterized by fragmentation distortion and dislocation of structure and envelope International style or international modern– the pervasive and often anonymous style of city developments worldwide Brutalism– the notorious use of raw concrete and massive uncompromising forms often in the context of public housing projects Specialist subclassifications of architecture edit Terms used to describe different architectural concerns origins and objectives Architecture parlante "speaking architecture" – buildings or architectural elements that explain their own function or identity by means of an inscription or literal representation Religious architecture – the design and construction of places of worship Responsive architecture – designing buildings that measure their environmental conditions via sensors to adapt their form shape color or character responsively via actuators Sustainable architecture – environmentally conscious design techniques in the field of architecture Vernacular architecture – traditional local building styles typically not designed by professional architects although vernacular elements are adopted by many architects Architectural theory edit Main article Architectural theory Architectural design values – the various values that influence architects and designers in making design decisions Mathematics and architecture – have always been close because architecture relies upon mathematical precision and because both fields share a search for order and beauty Pattern language – a term coined by architect Christopher Alexander a structured method of describing good design practices within a field of expertise Proportion – the relationship between elements and the whole Space syntax – a set of theories and techniques for the analysis of spatial configurations Architecture criticism – published or broadcast critique assessing the architect's success in meeting his own aims and objectives and those of others Architectural terms edit Glossary of architecture Regional architecture edit show v t e Architecture of the world History of architecture edit Pyramid of Djoser a step pyramid built during the th century BC The Parthenon in Athens is considered the pinnacle of ancient Greek architecture The Hagia Sophia dating from AD is one of the most famous examples of Byzantine architecture Renaissance façade of Santa Maria Novella in Florence Restrained neoclassical style the Elisabethkirche in Berlin Keble College Chapel in Oxford built in a gothic revival style Solomon R Guggenheim Museum in New York by Frank Lloyd Wright The Sage Gateshead by Norman Foster the trend towards organic shapes in contemporary architecture Burj Khalifa Dubai the tallest skyscraper in the world completed in Main articles History of architecture and Timeline of architecture Neolithic architecture – architecture of the last part of the Stone Age and of the people of the Americas and the Pacific up until the time of European contact Ancient Egyptian architecture – architecture of ancient Egypt which developed a vast array of diverse structures and great architectural monuments along the Nile among the largest and most famous of which are the Great Pyramid of Giza and the Great Sphinx of Giza Achaemenid architecture – the architectural achievements of the Achaemenid Persians manifesting in construction of complex cities Perspepolis Susa Ecbatana temples made for worship and social gatherings such as Zoroastrian temples and mausoleums erected in honor of fallen kings such as the burial tomb of Cyrus the Great Armenian architecture – an architectural style developed over the last years of human habitation in the Armenian Highland the eastern part of Asia Minor and used principally by the Armenian people Coptic architecture – the architecture of the Copts who form the majority of Christians in Egypt Dravidian architecture – a style of architecture thousands of years ago in the Southern part of the Indian subcontinent or South India built by the Dravidian peoples Maya architecture – the structures of the Maya civilization which was established circa BC and continued until its conquest by the Spanish in the th and th centuries Some of its notable constructions include ceremonial platforms palaces E Groups pyramids temples observatories and ballcourts Sumerian architecture – the ancient architecture of the region of the Tigris–Euphrates river system also known as Mesopotamia Ancient Greek architecture – the architecture of ancient Greece where the classical orders were developed establishing a precedent for the subsequent development of classical architecture Ancient Roman architecture – adopted the principles of ancient Greek architecture and developed both new decorative forms and much more complex building forms notably adopting the use of arches and vaults Buddhist architecture – developed by the worshipers of Buddha in South Asia in the rd century BCE and associated with three types of structures monasteries viharas stupas and temples Chaitya grihas Inca architecture – the pre Columbian architecture of the Incas in South America known particularly for its exceptionally precise masonry Sassanid architecture – the Persian architectural style that reached a peak in its development during the Sassanid era Mesoamerican architecture – the set of architectural traditions produced by pre Columbian cultures and civilizations of Mesoamerica best known in the form of public ceremonial and urban monumental buildings and structures Byzantine architecture – the architecture of the Byzantine Empire Islamic architecture – encompasses a wide range of both secular and religious styles from the foundation of Islam to the present day influencing the design and construction of buildings and structures in Islamic culture Newa architecture – style of architecture used by the Newari people in the Kathmandu valley in Nepal ranging from stupas and chaitya monastery buildings to courtyard structures and distinctive houses Medieval architecture – a term used to represent various forms of architecture common in Medieval Europe Romanesque architecture – an architectural style of Medieval Europe characterized by semi circular arches Gothic architecture – a style of architecture that flourished during the high and late medieval period Iranian architecture – or Persian architecture is the historic architecture of Iran Persia Hoysala architecture – building style developed under the rule of the Hoysala Empire between the th and th centuries in the region known today as Karnataka a state of India Vijayanagara Architecture – primarily a temple style found in Vijayanagara principality in India Ottoman architecture – or Turkish architecture is the architecture of the Ottoman Empire which emerged in Bursa and Edirne in th and th centuries Renaissance architecture – the architecture of the period between the early th and early th centuries in different regions of Europe demonstrating a conscious revival and development of certain elements of ancient Greek and Roman thought and material culture Classical architecture – architecture derived in part from the Greek and Roman architecture of classical antiquity enriched by classicizing architectural practice in Europe since the Renaissance Baroque architecture – the building style of the Baroque era begun in late sixteenth century Italy that took the Roman vocabulary of Renaissance architecture and used it in a new rhetorical and theatrical fashion often to express the triumph of the Catholic Church and the absolutist state Neoclassical architecture – an architectural style produced by the neoclassical movement which began in the mid th century manifested both in its details as a reaction against the Rococo style of naturalistic ornament and in its architectural formulas as an outgrowth of some classicizing features of Late Baroque Victorian architecture – includes several architectural styles employed predominantly during the middle and late th century Renaissance Revival architecture – nineteenth century revival style inspired by buildings of the Renaissance Gothic Revival architecture – also called "Victorian Gothic" and "Neo Gothic" an architectural movement that began in the late s in England Its popularity grew rapidly in the early th century when increasingly serious and learned admirers of neo Gothic styles sought to revive medieval forms in contrast to the neoclassical styles prevalent at the time Modern architecture – generally characterized by simplification of form and absence of ornament Although now historical the ubiquitous international style which predominates in cities worldwide remains a strong influence in contemporary architecture Postmodern architecture – began as an international style the first examples of which are generally cited as being from the s but did not become a movement until the late s and continues to influence present day architecture New Classical Architecture – a movement for reapproaching traditional architecture language that established since the s Buildings edit Although not all buildings are architecture the term encompasses a huge range of building types as summarised in the following list pages List of building types List of buildings List of human habitation forms Building construction edit Building design Materials edit Materiality architecture Building material List of building materials Structural elements edit Refer to Category Architectural elements Arch – a curved structure often made up blocks or bricks spanning across an opening and supporting the weight of structure above Works by transferring vertical loads into compression forces There are many arch shapes including semicircular segmental parabolic pointed gothic three point and flat arches Beam structure – a straight structural member typically wood or steel capable of spanning from one support to another and supporting the weight of structure above Works by resisting bending forces Buttress – a short section of masonry built at right angles to a wall to resist lateral forces Cantilever – a projecting structure without visible means of support at the projecting end Column or pillar – a relatively slender structural element typically circular square or polygonal in plan that bears the weight of the structure above Dome – a roof structure typically hemispherical constructed in a similar way to an arch The plan shape may be circular elliptical or polygonal and the cross section shape can vary in the same ways as an arch Doorway – opening in a wall typically rectangular providing means of access usually with a gate or door to provide security and weather protection Facade – an exterior face of a building especially the front Foundation or footing – solid base usually below ground upon which buildings and other structures are built Works by spreading vertical loads over a sufficient area to ensure the structure will not subside Lintel – a structural member spanning across the top of an opening Unlike a beam a lintel spans a relatively short distance which can be spanned by single block of stone of sufficient depth Concrete timber and steel lintels are also used in different types of construction Pier architecture – loadbearing structure similar to a column but more massive Truss – a structure spanning in the same way as a beam but using materials more efficiently by using triangulation to create a rigid structure Typically timber or steel used to support a pitched roof Vault architecture – a curved masonry structure spanning in the same way as an arch forming either a roof or support for a floor above Wall – a linear structure enclosing the exterior of an area or building or subdividing an internal space A wall may be loadbearing or non loadbearing Window – an opening in a wall typically rectangular providing light and ventilation Usually but not always glazed Architectural education edit Professional requirements for architects – Students undertake specific vocational training in order to qualify as a professional architects Training typically consists of one or more university degrees and a period of practical experience In some countries it is illegal to use the title architect without accredited qualifications In the United Kingdom the Architects Registration Board exists solely to regulate membership of the profession and the National Council of Architectural Registration Boards is an umbrella organisation covering all the organisations fulfilling a similar role in the United States Some of the qualifications specific to architecture include Bachelor of Architecture B Arch – undergraduate academic degree designed to satisfy the academic component of professional accreditation bodies to be followed by a period of practical training prior to professional examination and registration Master of Architecture M Arch – professional degree in architecture qualifying the graduate to move through the various stages of professional accreditation internship exams that result in receiving a license Doctor of Architecture D Arch – doctoral degree in the field of architecture that can be completed after either a Bachelor of Architecture B Arch Master of Architecture M Arch degree or in some cases another degree Architectural practice edit most commonly involved in nonbuilding structures as well as building structures but they can also be involved in the design of machinery medical equipment vehicles or any item where structural integrity affects the item's function or safety Structural engineers must ensure their designs satisfy given design criteria predicated on safety i e structures must not collapse without due warning or serviceability and performance i e building sway must not cause discomfort to the occupants Structural engineering theory is based upon applied physical laws and empirical knowledge of the structural performance of different materials and geometries Structural engineering design utilizes a number of simple structural elements to build complex structural systems Structural engineers are responsible for making creative and efficient use of funds structural elements and materials to achieve these goals Contents hide Structural Engineer Professional History of Structural Engineering Timeline Structural failure Specializations Building structures Earthquake engineering structures Civil engineering structures Mechanical structures Aerospace structures Nanoscale structures Structural Engineering for Medical Science Structural elements Columns Beams Trusses Plates Shells Arches Catenaries Structural engineering theory Materials See also References External links Further reading Structural Engineer Professional edit Main article Structural Engineer Structural engineers are responsible for engineering design and analysis Entry level structural engineers may design the individual structural elements of a structure for example the beams columns and floors of a building More experienced engineers may be responsible for the structural design and integrity of an entire system such as a building Structural engineers often specialize in particular fields such as bridge engineering building engineering pipeline engineering industrial structures or special mechanical structures such as vehicles ships or aircraft Structural engineering has existed since humans first started to construct their own structures It became a more defined and formalised profession with the emergence of the architecture profession as distinct from the engineering profession during the industrial revolution in the late th century Until then the architect and the structural engineer were usually one and the same the master builder Only with the development of specialised knowledge of structural theories that emerged during the th and early th centuries did the professional structural engineer come into existence The role of a structural engineer today involves a significant understanding of both static and dynamic loading and the structures that are available to resist them The complexity of modern structures often requires a great deal of creativity from the engineer in order to ensure the structures support and resist the loads they are subjected to A structural engineer will typically have a four or five year undergraduate degree followed by a minimum of three years of professional practice before being considered fully qualified Structural engineers are licensed or accredited by different learned societies and regulatory bodies around the world for example the Institution of Structural Engineers in the UK Depending on the degree course they have studied and or the jurisdiction they are seeking licensure in they may be accredited or licensed as just structural engineers or as civil engineers or as both civil and structural engineers Another international organisation is IABSE International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering The aim of that association is to exchange knowledge and to advance the practice of structural engineering worldwide in the service of the profession and society History of Structural Engineering edit Main article History of structural engineering Pont du Gard France a Roman era aqueduct circa BC Structural engineering dates back to B C E when the step pyramid for Pharaoh Djoser was built by Imhotep the first engineer in history known by name Pyramids were the most common major structures built by ancient civilizations because the structural form of a pyramid is inherently stable and can be almost infinitely scaled as opposed to most other structural forms which cannot be linearly increased in size in proportion to increased loads However it's important to note that the structural stability of the pyramid is not primarily a result of its shape The integrity of the pyramid is intact as long as each of the stones is able to support the weight of the stone above it The limestone blocks were taken from a quarry near the build site Since the compressive strength of limestone is anywhere from to MPa MPa Pa ^ the blocks will not fail under compression Therefore the structural strength of the pyramid stems from the material properties of the stones from which it was built rather than the pyramid's geometry Throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans such as stone masons and carpenters rising to the role of master builder No theory of structures existed and understanding of how structures stood up was extremely limited and based almost entirely on empirical evidence of 'what had worked before' Knowledge was retained by guilds and seldom supplanted by advances Structures were repetitive and increases in scale were incremental No record exists of the first calculations of the strength of structural members or the behavior of structural material but the profession of structural engineer only really took shape with the Industrial Revolution and the re invention of concrete see History of Concrete The physical sciences underlying structural engineering began to be understood in the Renaissance and have since developed into computer based applications pioneered in the s Timeline edit – Leonardo da Vinci made many contributions Galileo Galilei published the book "Two New Sciences" in which he examined the failure of simple structures Galileo Galilei published the book "Two New Sciences" in which he examined the failure of simple structures Hooke's law by Robert Hooke Isaac Newton published "Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica" which contains the Newton's laws of motion Isaac Newton published "Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica" which contains the Newton's laws of motion Euler–Bernoulli beam equation – Daniel Bernoulli introduced the principle of virtual work – Leonhard Euler developed the theory of buckling of columns Leonhard Euler developed the theory of buckling of columns Claude Louis Navier published a treatise on the elastic behaviors of structures Carlo Alberto Castigliano presented his dissertation "Intorno ai sistemi elastici" which contains his theorem for computing displacement as partial derivative of the strain energy This theorem includes the method of least work as a special case Otto Mohr formalized the idea of a statically indeterminate structure Timoshenko corrects the Euler Bernoulli beam equation Hardy Cross' publication of the moment distribution method an important innovation in the design of continuous frames Alexander Hrennikoff solved the discretization of plane elasticity problems using a lattice framework R Courant divided a domain into finite subregions J Turner R W Clough H C Martin and L J Topp's paper on the "Stiffness and Deflection of Complex Structures" introduces the name "finite element method" and is widely recognized as the first comprehensive treatment of the method as it is known today Structural failure edit Main articles Structural failure and List of structural failures and collapses The history of structural engineering contains many collapses and failures Sometimes this is due to obvious negligence as in the case of the Pétionville school collapse in which Rev Fortin Augustin "constructed the building all by himself saying he didn't need an engineer as he had good knowledge of construction" following a partial collapse of the three story schoolhouse that sent neighbors fleeing The final collapse killed people mostly children In other cases structural failures require careful study and the results of these inquiries have resulted in improved practices and greater understanding of the science of structural engineering Some such studies are the result of forensic engineering investigations where the original engineer seems to have done everything in accordance with the state of the profession and acceptable practice yet a failure still eventuated A famous case of structural knowledge and practice being advanced in this manner can be found in a series of failures involving box girders which collapsed in Australia during the s Specializations edit Building structures edit See also Building engineering Sydney Opera House designed by Architect Jørn Utzon and structural design by Ove Arup & Partners Millennium Dome in London UK by Richard Rogers and Buro Happold Burj Khalifa in Dubai the world's tallest building shown under construction in since completed Structural building engineering includes all structural engineering related to the design of buildings It is a branch of structural engineering closely affiliated with architecture Structural building engineering is primarily driven by the creative manipulation of materials and forms and the underlying mathematical and scientific ideas to achieve an end which fulfills its functional requirements and is structurally safe when subjected to all the loads it could reasonably be expected to experience This is subtly different from architectural design which is driven by the creative manipulation of materials and forms mass space volume texture and light to achieve an end which is aesthetic functional and often artistic The architect is usually the lead designer on buildings with a structural engineer employed as a sub consultant The degree to which each discipline actually leads the design depends heavily on the type of structure Many structures are structurally simple and led by architecture such as multi storey office buildings and housing while other structures such as tensile structures shells and gridshells are heavily dependent on their form for their strength and the engineer may have a more significant influence on the form and hence much of the aesthetic than the architect The structural design for a building must ensure that the building is able to stand up safely able to function without excessive deflections or movements which may cause fatigue of structural elements cracking or failure of fixtures fittings or partitions or discomfort for occupants It must account for movements and forces due to temperature creep cracking and imposed loads It must also ensure that the design is practically buildable within acceptable manufacturing tolerances of the materials It must allow the architecture to work and the building services to fit within the building and function air conditioning ventilation smoke extract electrics lighting etc The structural design of a modern building can be extremely complex and often requires a large team to complete Structural engineering specialties for buildings include Earthquake engineering Façade engineering Fire engineering Roof engineering Tower engineering Wind engineering Earthquake engineering structures edit Main article Earthquake engineering structures Earthquake engineering structures are those engineered to withstand earthquakes Earthquake proof pyramid El Castillo Chichen Itza The main objectives of earthquake engineering are to understand the interaction of structures with the shaking ground foresee the consequences of possible earthquakes and design and construct the structures to perform during an earthquake Earthquake proof structures are not necessarily extremely strong like the El Castillo pyramid at Chichen Itza shown above In fact many structures considered strong may in fact be stiff which can result in poor seismic performance One important tool of earthquake engineering is base isolation which allows the base of a structure to move freely with the ground Civil engineering structures edit Civil structural engineering includes all structural engineering related to the built environment It includes Bridges Dams Earthworks Foundations Offshore structures Pipelines Power stations Railways Retaining structures and walls Roads Tunnels Waterways Water and wastewater infrastructure The structural engineer is the lead designer on these structures and often the sole designer In the design of structures such as these structural safety is of paramount importance in the UK designs for dams nuclear power stations and bridges must be signed off by a chartered engineer Civil engineering structures are often subjected to very extreme forces such as large variations in temperature dynamic loads such as waves or traffic or high pressures from water or compressed gases They are also often constructed in corrosive environments such as at sea in industrial facilities or below ground Mechanical structures edit Mechanical Structures BMW S RR race jpg Principles of structural engineering are applied to variety of mechanical moveable structures The design of static structures assumes they always have the same geometry in fact so called static structures can move significantly and structural engineering design must take this into account where necessary but the design of moveable or moving structures must account for fatigue variation in the method in which load is resisted and significant deflections of structures The forces which parts of a machine are subjected to can vary significantly and can do so at a great rate The forces which a boat or aircraft are subjected to vary enormously and will do so thousands of times over the structure's lifetime The structural design must ensure that such structures are able to endure such loading for their entire design life without failing These works can require mechanical structural engineering Boilers and pressure vessels Coachworks and carriages Cranes Elevators Escalators Marine vessels and hulls Aerospace structures edit An Airbus A the world's largest passenger airliner Design of missile needs in depth understanding of Structural Analysis Aerospace structure types include launch vehicles Atlas Delta Titan missiles ALCM Harpoon Hypersonic vehicles Space Shuttle military aircraft F F and commercial aircraft Boeing MD Aerospace structures typically consist of thin plates with stiffeners for the external surfaces bulkheads and frames to support the shape and fasteners such as welds rivets screws and bolts to hold the components together Nanoscale structures edit A nanostructure is an object of intermediate size between molecular and microscopic micrometer sized structures In describing nanostructures it is necessary to differentiate between the number of dimensions on the nanoscale Nanotextured surfaces have one dimension on the nanoscale i e only the thickness of the surface of an object is between and nm Nanotubes disambiguation needed have two dimensions on the nanoscale i e the diameter of the tube is between and nm its length could be much greater Finally spherical nanoparticles have three dimensions on the nanoscale i e the particle is between and nm in each spatial dimension The terms nanoparticles and ultrafine particles UFP often are used synonymously although UFP can reach into the micrometre range The term 'nanostructure' is often used when referring to magnetic technology Structural Engineering for Medical Science edit Designing Medical Equipment needs in depth understanding of Structural Engineering Medical equipment also known as armamentarium is designed to aid in the diagnosis monitoring or treatment of medical conditions There are several basic types Diagnostic equipment includes medical imaging machines used to aid in diagnosis equipment includes infusion pumps medical lasers and LASIK surgical machines Medical monitors allow medical staff to measure a patient's medical state Monitors may measure patient vital signs and other parameters including ECG EEG blood pressure and dissolved gases in the blood Diagnostic Medical Equipment may also be used in the home for certain purposes e g for the control of diabetes mellitus A biomedical equipment technician BMET is a vital component of the healthcare delivery system Employed primarily by hospitals BMETs are the people responsible for maintaining a facility's medical equipment Structural elements edit Main article Space frame A statically determinate simply supported beam bending under an evenly distributed load Any structure is essentially made up of only a small number of different types of elements Columns Beams Plates Arches Shells Catenaries Many of these elements can be classified according to form straight plane curve and dimensionality one dimensional two dimensional One dimensional Two dimensional straight curve plane curve predominantly bending beam continuous arch plate concrete slab lamina dome predominant tensile stress rope tie Catenary shell predominant compression pier column Load bearing wall Columns edit Main article Column Columns are elements that carry only axial force compression or both axial force and bending which is technically called a beam column but practically just a column The design of a column must check the axial capacity of the element and the buckling capacity The buckling capacity is the capacity of the element to withstand the propensity to buckle Its capacity depends upon its geometry material and the effective length of the column which depends upon the restraint conditions at the top and bottom of the column The effective length is K l where l is the real length of the column The capacity of a column to carry axial load depends on the degree of bending it is subjected to and vice versa This is represented on an interaction chart and is a complex non linear relationship Beams edit Main article Beam Little Belt a truss bridge in Denmark A beam may be defined as an element in which one dimension is much greater than the other two and the applied loads are usually normal to the main axis of the element Beams and columns are called line elements and are often represented by simple lines in structural modeling cantilevered supported at one end only with a fixed connection simply supported supported vertically at each end horizontally on only one to withstand friction and able to rotate at the supports fixed supported at both ends by fixed connection unable to rotate at the supports continuous supported by three or more supports a combination of the above ex supported at one end and in the middle Beams are elements which carry pure bending only Bending causes one part of the section of a beam divided along its length to go into compression and the other part into tension The compression part must be designed to resist buckling and crushing while the tension part must be able to adequately resist the tension Trusses edit Main article Truss The McDonnell Planetarium by Gyo Obata in St Louis Missouri USA a concrete shell structure The foot m high stainless clad type Gateway Arch in Saint Louis Missouri A truss is a structure comprising two types of structural elements compression members and tension members i e struts and ties Most trusses use gusset plates to connect intersecting elements Gusset plates are relatively flexible and minimize bending moments at the connections thus allowing the truss members to carry primarily tension or compression Trusses are usually utilised in large span structures where it would be uneconomical to use solid beams Plates edit Plates carry bending in two directions A concrete flat slab is an example of a plate Plates are understood by using continuum mechanics but due to the complexity involved they are most often designed using a codified empirical approach or computer analysis They can also be designed with yield line theory where an assumed collapse mechanism is analysed to give an upper bound on the collapse load see Plasticity This technique is used in practice but because the method provides an upper bound i e an unsafe prediction of the collapse load for poorly conceived collapse mechanisms great care is needed to ensure that the assumed collapse mechanism is realistic Shells edit composite material also called a composition material or shortened to composite is a material made from two or more constituent materials with significantly different physical or chemical properties that when combined produce a material with characteristics different from the individual components The individual components remain separate and distinct within the finished structure The new material may be preferred for many reasons common examples include materials which are stronger lighter or less expensive when compared to traditional materials More recently researchers have also begun to actively include sensing actuation computation and communication into composites which are known as Robotic Materials Typical engineered composite materials include Composite building materials such as cements concrete Reinforced plastics such as fiber reinforced polymer Metal composites Ceramic composites composite ceramic and metal matrices Composite materials are generally used for buildings bridges and structures such as boat hulls swimming pool panels race car bodies shower stalls bathtubs storage tanks imitation granite and cultured marble sinks and countertops The most advanced examples perform routinely on spacecraft and aircraft in demanding environments Contents hide History Examples Materials Products Overview Constituents Matrices Resins Other matrices Reinforcements Fiber Other Reinforcement Cores Fabrication methods Mold overview Vacuum bag moulding Pressure bag molding Autoclave moulding Resin transfer moulding RTM Other fabrication methods Finishing methods Tooling Physical properties Failure Testing See also References Further reading External links History edit icon This section requires expansion February The earliest man made composite materials were straw and mud combined to form bricks for building construction Ancient brick making was documented by Egyptian tomb paintings Wattle and daub is one of the oldest man made composite materials at over years old Concrete is also a composite material and is used more than any other man made material in the world As of about billion cubic metres of concrete are made each year—more than one cubic metre for every person on Earth Woody plants both true wood from trees and such plants as palms and bamboo yield natural composites that were used prehistorically by mankind and are still used widely in construction and scaffolding Plywood BC by the Ancient Mesopotamians gluing wood at different angles gives better properties than natural wood Cartonnage layers of linen or papyrus soaked in plaster dates to the First Intermediate Period of Egypt c – BC and was used for death masks Cob material Mud Bricks or Mud Walls using mud clay with straw or gravel as a binder have been used for thousands of years Concrete was described by Vitruvius writing around BC in his Ten Books on Architecture distinguished types of aggregate appropriate for the preparation of lime mortars For structural mortars he recommended pozzolana which were volcanic sands from the sandlike beds of Pozzuoli brownish yellow gray in colour near Naples and reddish brown at Rome Vitruvius specifies a ratio of part lime to parts pozzolana for cements used in buildings and a ratio of lime to pulvis Puteolanus for underwater work essentially the same ratio mixed today for concrete used at sea Natural cement stones after burning produced cements used in concretes from post Roman times into the th century with some properties superior to manufactured Portland cement Papier mâché a composite of paper and glue has been used for hundreds of years The first artificial fibre reinforced plastic was bakelite which dates to although natural polymers such as shellac predate it One of the most common and familiar composite is fiberglass in which small glass fiber are embedded within a polymeric material normally an epoxy or polyester The glass fiber is relatively strong and stiff but also brittle whereas the polymer is ductile but also weak and flexible Thus the resulting fiberglass is relatively stiff strong flexible and ductile Examples edit Materials edit Concrete is a mixture of cement and aggregate giving a robust strong material that is very widely used Plywood is used widely in construction Composite sandwich structure panel used for testing at NASA "Structural Integrity Analysis Composites" PDF Concrete is the most common artificial composite material of all and typically consists of loose stones aggregate held with a matrix of cement Concrete is a very robust material much more robust than cement and will not compress or shatter even under quite a large compressive force However concrete cannot survive tensile loading i e if stretched it will quickly break apart Therefore to give concrete the ability to resist being stretched steel bars which can resist high stretching forces are often added to concrete to form reinforced concrete Fibre reinforced polymers or FRPs include carbon fiber reinforced polymer or CFRP and glass reinforced plastic or GRP If classified by matrix then there are thermoplastic composites short fiber thermoplastics long fibre thermoplastics or long fibre reinforced thermoplastics There are numerous thermoset composites but advanced systems usually incorporate aramid fibre and carbon fibre in an epoxy resin matrix Shape memory polymer composites are high performance composites formulated using fibre or fabric reinforcement and shape memory polymer resin as the matrix Since a shape memory polymer resin is used as the matrix these composites have the ability to be easily manipulated into various configurations when they are heated above their activation temperatures and will exhibit high strength and stiffness at lower temperatures They can also be reheated and reshaped repeatedly without losing their material properties These composites are ideal for applications such as lightweight rigid deployable structures rapid manufacturing and dynamic reinforcement High strain composites are another type of high performance composites that are designed to perform in a high deformation setting and are often used in deployable systems where structural flexing is advantageous Although high strain composites exhibit many similarities to shape memory polymers their performance is generally dependent on the fiber layout as opposed to the resin content of the matrix Composites can also use metal fibres reinforcing other metals as in metal matrix composites MMC or ceramic matrix composites CMC which includes bone hydroxyapatite reinforced with collagen fibres cermet ceramic and metal and concrete Ceramic matrix composites are built primarily for fracture toughness not for strength Organic matrix ceramic aggregate composites include asphalt concrete mastic asphalt mastic roller hybrid dental composite syntactic foam and mother of pearl Chobham armour is a special type of composite armour used in military applications Additionally thermoplastic composite materials can be formulated with specific metal powders resulting in materials with a density range from g cm³ to g cm³ same density as lead The most common name for this type of material is "high gravity compound" HGC although "lead replacement" is also used These materials can be used in place of traditional materials such as aluminium stainless steel brass bronze copper lead and even tungsten in weighting balancing for example modifying the centre of gravity of a tennis racquet vibration damping and radiation shielding applications High density composites are an economically viable option when certain materials are deemed hazardous and are banned such as lead or when secondary operations costs such as machining finishing or coating are a factor Hunter S. Thompson (journalist, author) Kurt Vonnegut (author, pacifist, humanist) Andy Warhol (artist) Leonard Weinglass (attorney) Alan Watts (philosopher) John Lennon & Paul McCartney Eric Clapton Reference works[edit] Bashe, Patricia R.; George-Warren, Holly; Pareles, Jon, eds. (2005) [1983]. The Rolling Stone Encyclopedia of Rock & Roll. New York: Fireside. ISBN 0-7432-9201-4. Brackett, Nathan; Hoard, Christian, eds. (2004) [1979, 1983, 1992]. The New Rolling Stone Album Guide. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-7432-0169-8. Miller, Jim (1980) [1976]. The Rolling Stone Illustrated History of Rock & Roll. New York: Random House. ISBN 0-394-51322-3. Rolling Stone Cover to Cover – the First 40 Years: Searchable Digital Archive-Every Page, Every Issue. Renton, WA: Bondi Digital Pub. 2007. ISBN 978-0-9795261-0-7. Swenson, John (1985). The Rolling Stone Jazz Record Guide. New York: Rolling Stone. ISBN 0-394-72643-X. International editions[edit] Argentina – Published by Publirevistas S. A. since April 1998. This edition also circulates in Bolivia, Paraguay and Uruguay. Australia – Rolling Stone Australia began as a supplement in 1969 in Go-Set magazine. It became a full title in 1972. It was published by Silvertongues from 1974 to 1987 and by Nextmedia Pty Ltd, Sydney until 2008. Notable editors and contributors include Paul and Jane Gardiner, Toby Creswell, Clinton Walker and Kathy Bail. It is now published by Bauer Media Group and is the longest running international edition. Brazil – Published in Brazil since October 2006 by Spring Comunicações. Bulgaria – Published in Bulgaria since November 2009 by Sivir Publications. Ceased publication as of the August/September 2011 issue. Chile – Published by Edu Comunicaciones from May 2003 to December 2005. Published by El Mercurio from January 2006 to December 2011. China – Rolling Stone in mainland China was licensed to One Media Group of Hong Kong and published in partnership with China Record Corporation in 2006. The magazine was in Chinese with translated articles and local content. It halted publication after one year. Croatia – Published since October 2013 - 2015 by S3 Mediji. This edition also circulates in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia and Slovenia. Colombia – Edited in Bogotá for Colombia, Ecuador, Perú, Panama and Venezuela, since 1991. France – Launched 2002. This edition temporarily ceased in 2007 and was relaunched in May 2008 under license with 1633SA publishing group. Germany – Published in Germany since 1994 by Axel Springer AG. India – Launched in March 2008 by MW Com, publishers of Man's World magazine. Indonesia – Published in Indonesia since June 2005 by a&e Media. Italy – Published in Italy since 1980. After ceasing publication in 1982, it was relaunched in November 2003, first by IXO Publishing, and then by Editrice Quadratum until April 2014. The magazine is currently published by Luciano Bernardini de Pace Editore.[73] Japan – Launched in March 2007 by International Luxury Media Co., Ltd. (ILM). Published by atomixmedia Inc. (?????????????? KK atomikkusumedia?) During her grandfather's reign, Elizabeth was third in the line of succession to the throne, behind her uncle Edward, Prince of Wales, and her father, the Duke of York. Although her birth generated public interest, she was not expected to become queen, as the Prince of Wales was still young, and many assumed that he would marry and have children of his own.[15] When her grandfather died in 1936 and her uncle succeeded as Edward VIII, she became second-in-line to the throne, after her father. Later that year Edward abdicated, after his proposed marriage to divorced socialite Wallis Simpson provoked a constitutional crisis.[16] Consequently, Elizabeth's father became king, and she became heir presumptive. If her parents had had a later son, she would have lost her position as first-in-line, as her brother would have been heir apparent and above her in the line of succession.[17] Elizabeth received private tuition in constitutional history from Henry Marten, Vice-Provost of Eton College,[18] and learned French from a succession of native-speaking governesses.[19] A Girl Guides company, the 1st Buckingham Palace Company, was formed specifically so that she could socialise with girls her own age.[20] Later, she was enrolled as a Sea Ranger.[19] In 1939, Elizabeth's parents toured Canada and the United States. As in 1927, when her parents had toured Australia and New Zealand, Elizabeth remained in Britain, since her father thought her too young to undertake public tours.[21] Elizabeth "looked tearful" as her parents departed.[22] They corresponded regularly,[22] and she and her parents made the first royal transatlantic telephone call on 18 May.[21] Second World War In September 1939, Britain entered the Second World War, which lasted until 1945. During the war, many of London's children were evacuated to avoid the frequent aerial bombing. The suggestion by senior politician Lord Hailsham[23] that the two princesses should be evacuated to Canada was rejected by Elizabeth's mother, who declared, "The children won't go without me. I won't leave without the King. And the King will never leave."[24] Princesses Elizabeth and Margaret stayed at Balmoral Castle, Scotland, until Christmas 1939, when they moved to Sandringham House, Norfolk.[25] From February to May 1940, they lived at Royal Lodge, Windsor, until moving to Windsor Castle, where they lived for most of the next five years.[26] At Windsor, the princesses staged pantomimes at Christmas in aid of the Queen's Wool Fund, which bought yarn to knit into military garments.[27] In 1940, the 14-year-old Elizabeth made her first radio broadcast during the BBC's Children's Hour, addressing other children who had been evacuated from the cities.[28] She stated: We are trying to do all we can to help our gallant sailors, soldiers and airmen, and we are trying, too, to bear our share of the danger and sadness of war. We know, every one of us, that in the end all will be well.[28] Elizabeth in Auxiliary Territorial Service uniform, April 1945 Princess Elizabeth (left, in uniform) on the balcony of Buckingham Palace with (left to right) her mother Queen Elizabeth, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, King George VI, and Princess Margaret, 8 May 1945 In 1943, at the age of 16, Elizabeth undertook her first solo public appearance on a visit to the Grenadier Guards, of which she had been appointed colonel the previous year.[29] As she approached her 18th birthday, the law was changed so that she could act as one of five Counsellors of State in the event of her father's incapacity or absence abroad, such as his visit to Italy in July 1944.[30] In February 1945, she joined the Women's Auxiliary Territorial Service as an honorary second subaltern with the service number of 230873.[31] She trained as a driver and mechanic and was promoted to honorary junior commander five months later.[32][33] At the end of the war in Europe, on Victory in Europe Day, Princesses Elizabeth and Margaret mingled anonymously with the celebratory crowds in the streets of London. Elizabeth later said in a rare interview, "We asked my parents if we could go out and see for ourselves. I remember we were terrified of being recognised ... I remember lines of unknown people linking arms and walking down Whitehall, all of us just swept along on a tide of happiness and relief."[34] During the war, plans were drawn up to quell Welsh nationalism by affiliating Elizabeth more closely with Wales. Proposals, such as appointing her Constable of Caernarfon Castle or a patron of Urdd Gobaith Cymru (the Welsh League of Youth), were abandoned for various reasons, which included a fear of associating Elizabeth with conscientious objectors in the Urdd, at a time when Britain was at war.[35] Welsh politicians suggested that she be made Princess of Wales on her 18th birthday. The idea was supported by the Home Secretary, Herbert Morrison, but rejected by the King because he felt such a title belonged solely to the wife of a Prince of Wales and the Prince of Wales had always been the heir apparent.[36] In 1946, she was inducted into the Welsh Gorsedd of Bards at the National Eisteddfod of Wales.[37] In 1947, Princess Elizabeth went on her first overseas tour, accompanying her parents through southern Africa. During the tour, in a broadcast to the British Commonwealth on her 21st birthday, she made the following pledge: I declare before you all that my whole life, whether it be long or short, shall be devoted to your service and the service of our great imperial family to which we all belong.[38] Marriage and family Main article: Wedding of Princess Elizabeth and Philip Mountbatten, Duke of Edinburgh Elizabeth met her future husband, Prince Philip of Greece and Denmark, in 1934 and 1937.[39] They are second cousins once removed through King Christian IX of Denmark and third cousins through Queen Victoria. After another meeting at the Royal Naval College in Dartmouth in July 1939, Elizabeth—though only 13 years old—said she fell in love with Philip and they began to exchange letters.[40] Their engagement was officially announced on 9 July 1947.[41] The engagement was not without controversy: Philip had no financial standing, was foreign-born (though a British subject who had served in the Royal Navy throughout the Second World War), and had sisters who had married German noblemen with Nazi links.[42] Marion Crawford wrote, "Some of the King's advisors did not think him good enough for her. He was a prince without a home or kingdom. Some of the papers played long and loud tunes on the string of Philip's foreign origin."[43] Elizabeth's mother was reported, in later biographies, to have opposed the union initially, even dubbing Philip "The Hun".[44] In later life, however, she told biographer Tim Heald that Philip was "an English gentleman".[45] Before the marriage, Philip renounced his Greek and Danish titles, converted from Greek Orthodoxy to Anglicanism, and adopted the style Lieutenant Philip Mountbatten, taking the surname of his mother's British family.[46] Just before the wedding, he was created Duke of Edinburgh and granted the style His Royal Highness.[47] Elizabeth and Philip were married on 20 November 1947 at Westminster Abbey. They received 2500 wedding gifts from around the world.[48] Because Britain had not yet completely recovered from the devastation of the war, Elizabeth required ration coupons to buy the material for her gown, which was designed by Norman Hartnell.[49] In post-war Britain, it was not acceptable for the Duke of Edinburgh's German relations, including his three surviving sisters, to be invited to the wedding.[50] The Duke of Windsor, formerly King Edward VIII, was not invited either.[51] Elizabeth gave birth to her first child, Prince Charles, on 14 November 1948. One month earlier, the King had issued letters patent allowing her children to use the style and title of a royal prince or princess, to which they otherwise would not have been entitled as their father was no longer a royal prince.[52] A second child, Princess Anne, was born in 1950.[53] Following their wedding, the couple leased Windlesham Moor, near Windsor Castle, until 4 July 1949,[48] when they took up residence at Clarence House in London. At various times between 1949 and 1951, the Duke of Edinburgh was stationed in the British Crown Colony of Malta as a serving Royal Navy officer. He and Elizabeth lived intermittently, for several months at a time, in the hamlet of Gwardamanga, at Villa Guardamangia, the rented home of Philip's uncle, Lord Mountbatten. The children remained in Britain.[54] Reign Accession and coronation Elizabeth in crown and robes next to her husband in military uniform Coronation portrait of Queen Elizabeth II and the Duke of Edinburgh, June 1953 Coronation of Elizabeth II Main article: Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II During 1951, George VI's health declined and Elizabeth frequently stood in for him at public events. When she toured Canada and visited President Harry S. Truman in Washington, D.C., in October 1951, her private secretary, Martin Charteris, carried a draft accession declaration in case the King died while she was on tour.[55] In early 1952, Elizabeth and Philip set out for a tour of Australia and New Zealand by way of Kenya. On 6 February 1952, they had just returned to their Kenyan home, Sagana Lodge, after a night spent at Treetops Hotel, when word arrived of the death of the King and consequently Elizabeth's immediate accession to the throne. Philip broke the news to the new Queen.[56] Martin Charteris asked her to choose a regnal name; she chose to remain Elizabeth, "of course".[57] She was proclaimed queen throughout her realms and the royal party hastily returned to the United Kingdom.[58] She and the Duke of Edinburgh moved into Buckingham Palace.[59] With Elizabeth's accession, it seemed probable that the royal house would bear her husband's name, becoming the House of Mountbatten, in line with the custom of a wife taking her husband's surname on marriage. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and Elizabeth's grandmother, Queen Mary, favoured the retention of the House of Windsor, and so on 9 April 1952 Elizabeth issued a declaration that Windsor would continue to be the name of the royal house. The Duke complained, "I am the only man in the country not allowed to give his name to his own children."[60] In 1960, after the death of Queen Mary in 1953 and the resignation of Churchill in 1955, the surname Mountbatten-Windsor was adopted for Philip and Elizabeth's male-line descendants who do not carry royal titles.[61] Amid preparations for the coronation, Princess Margaret informed her sister that she wished to marry Peter Townsend, a divorcé‚ 16 years Margaret's senior, with two sons from his previous marriage. The Queen asked them to wait for a year; in the words of Martin Charteris, "the Queen was naturally sympathetic towards the Princess, but I think she thought—she hoped—given time, the affair would peter out."[62] Senior politicians were against the match and the Church of England did not permit remarriage after divorce. If Margaret had contracted a civil marriage, she would have been expected to renounce her right of succession.[63] Eventually, she decided to abandon her plans with Townsend.[64] In 1960, she married Antony Armstrong-Jones, who was created Earl of Snowdon the following year. They were divorced in 1978; she did not remarry.[65] Despite the death of Queen Mary on 24 March, the coronation on 2 June 1953 went ahead as planned, as Mary had asked before she died.[66] The ceremony in Westminster Abbey, with the exception of the anointing and communion, was televised for the first time.[67][d] Elizabeth's coronation gown was embroidered on her instructions with the floral emblems of Commonwealth countries:[71] English Tudor rose; Scots thistle; Welsh leek; Irish shamrock; Australian wattle; Canadian maple leaf; New Zealand silver fern; South African protea; lotus flowers for India and Ceylon; and Pakistan's wheat, cotton, and jute.[72] Continuing evolution of the Commonwealth Further information: Historical development of the Commonwealth realms, from the Queen's accession The Commonwealth realms (pink) and their territories and protectorates (red) at the beginning of Elizabeth II's reign A formal group of Elizabeth in tiara and evening dress with eleven politicians in evening dress or national costume. Elizabeth II and Commonwealth leaders at the 1960 Commonwealth Conference, Windsor Castle From Elizabeth's birth onwards, the British Empire continued its transformation into the Commonwealth of Nations.[73] By the time of her accession in 1952, her role as head of multiple independent states was already established.[74] Spanning 1953–54, the Queen and her husband embarked on a six-month around-the-world tour. She became the first reigning monarch of Australia and New Zealand to visit those nations.[75] During the tour, crowds were immense; three-quarters of the population of Australia were estimated to have seen her.[76] Throughout her reign, the Queen has undertaken state visits to foreign countries and tours of Commonwealth ones and she is the most widely travelled head of state.[77] In 1956, French Prime Minister Guy Mollet and British Prime Minister Sir Anthony Eden discussed the possibility of France joining the Commonwealth. The proposal was never accepted and the following year France signed the Treaty of Rome, which established the European Economic Community, the precursor of the European Union.[78] In November 1956, Britain and France invaded Egypt in an ultimately unsuccessful attempt to capture the Suez Canal. Lord Mountbatten claimed the Queen was opposed to the invasion, though Eden denied it. Eden resigned two months later.[79] The absence of a formal mechanism within the Conservative Party for choosing a leader meant that, following Eden's resignation, it fell to the Queen to decide whom to commission to form a government. Eden recommended that she consult Lord Salisbury, the Lord President of the Council. Lord Salisbury and Lord Kilmuir, the Lord Chancellor, consulted the British Cabinet, Winston Churchill, and the Chairman of the backbench 1922 Committee, resulting in the Queen appointing their recommended candidate: Harold Macmillan.[80] The Suez crisis and the choice of Eden's successor led in 1957 to the first major personal criticism of the Queen. In a magazine, which he owned and edited,[81] Lord Altrincham accused her of being "out of touch".[82] Altrincham was denounced by public figures and slapped by a member of the public appalled by his comments.[83] Aleksejs Širovs born – chess player Andris Škele born – politician Prime Minister of Latvia Armands Škele – basketball player Ksenia Solo born – actress Ernests Štalbergs – – architect ensemble of the Freedom Monument Izaks Nahmans Šteinbergs – – politician lawyer and author Maris Štrombergs – BMX cyclist gold medal winner at and Olympics T edit Esther Takeuchi born – materials scientist and chemical engineer Mihails Tals – – the th World Chess Champion Janis Roberts Tilbergs – – painter sculptor U edit Guntis Ulmanis born – president of Latvia Karlis Ulmanis – – prime minister and president of Latvia


abby-lane abby-rode abigail-clayton ada-tauler addie-juniper addison-cain adele-wiesenthal adeline-lange adeline-pollicina adriana-amante adrianna-laurenti adrianna-russo agnes agnes-ardant agnes-zalontai aimee-addison aisha-sun aja aleena-ferari alessandra-schiavo aletta-ocean alexandra-nice alexandria-cass alexa-parks alex-dane alex-foxe alexia-knight alexis-devell alexis-firestone alexis-greco alexis-payne alexis-x alex-storm alex-white aliana-love alice-springs alicia-alighatti alicia-monet alicia-rio alicyn-sterling alighiera-olena ali-moore aline-santos alissa-ashley allysin-chaynes alysin-embers alyssa-love alyssa-reece amanda-addams amanda-blake amanda-blue amanda-jane-adams amanda-rae amanda-stone amanda-tyler amber-hunt amberlina-lynn amber-lynn amber-michaels amber-peach amber-wild amber-woods ambrosia-fox amia-miley ami-rodgers amy-allison amy-brooke amy-rose amy-starz anastasia-christ anastasia-sands andrea-adams andrea-brittian andrea-lange andrea-true andy angel 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carmel-nougat carmen-blonde carmen-de-la-torre carmen-moore carmen-rose carol-connors carol-cross carol-cummings carole-dubois carole-gire carole-pierac carol-titian carolyn-connoly carolyn-monroe carrie-cruise cassandra-leigh cassidy cassie-courtland cataline-bullock catherine-count catherine-crystal catherine-ringer catherine-tailleferre cathy-delorme cathy-menard cathy-stewart celeste-fox celine-gallone chanel-preston chanel-price chantal-virapin chanta-rose chantelle-stevens charisma charisma-cole charlie-latour charlie-waters charlotte-de-castille charmane-star chasey-lain chayse-manhattan chaz-vincent chelsea-sinclaire chennin-blanc cheri-janvier cheri-taylor cherry-hill chessie-moore cheyenne-hunter cheyenne-silver china-lee china-leigh china-moon chloe-cruize chloe-dior chloe-kez chloe-stevens chris-collins chris-jordan chris-petersen chrissie-beauchamp christa-abel christa-ludwig christie-ford christi-lake christina-berg christina-blond christina-evol christina-skye christine-black christine-chavert christine-neona christine-rigoler christy-canyon cicciolina cindi-stephens cindy-carver cindy-crawford cindy-more cindy-shepard cindy-wong cinthya-marinho clair-dia claire-robbins claude-janna claudia-jackson claudia-jamsson claudia-mehringer claudia-nero claudia-van-statt claudia-zante claudine-beccarie clea-carson cleo-nichole cleo-patra cody-lane cody-love cody-nicole coffee-brown colleen-brennan connie-bennett connie-peterson constance-money copper-penny coreena corey-everson corinne-lemoine corneliah cory-everson cory-wolf courtney courtney-cummz courtney-james cris-cassidy crissy-moran cris-taliana crystal-breeze crystal-dawn crystal-holland crystal-knight crystal-lake crystal-lovin crystal-sync csilla-kalnay cuban-bee cynara-fox cyndee-summers cynthia-black cynthia-brooks cynthia-hammers cynthia-lavigne dagmar-lost daisy-layne dallas-miko dana-dylan dana-lynn danica-rhea daniela-nanou daniela-schiffer daniele-troeger daniella daniella-schiffer 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elena-berkova elena-maria-ricci eleonore-melzer elisabeth-bure elis-black elise elise-di-medici elle-devyne elle-rio elodie-delage elsa-maroussia elza-brown emili-doll emily-evermoore emily-george emily-jewel emmanuelle-pareze envy-mi erica-boyer erica-eaton erica-havens erica-idol erica-lauren erika-bella erika-cool erika-heaven erika-lockett esme-monroe eva-allen eva-angel eva-dionisio eva-gross eva-kleber eva-lux eva-uettori eve-laurence evelyne-lang evie-delatosso fabiana-venturi faith-stevens fallon fanny-garreau fanny-steel faye-runaway flame flick-shagwell flore-soller flower france-lomay france-quenie francoise frankie-leigh gabriella gabriella-mirelba gabriella-vincze gail-force gail-palmer gail-sterling georgette-saunders georgia-peach georgina-spelvin gia-givanna gianna-lynn gili-sky gina-carrera gina-gianetti gina-janssen gina-lee gina-martell gina-valentino ginger-jay ginger-lee ginger-lynn ginny-noack giovanna gisela-schwarz giselle-monet gladys-laroche gloria-leonard 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jeanie-marie-sullivan jean-jennings jeanna-fine jeannie-pepper jenna-jameson jenna-jane jenna-presley jenna-wells jennifer-haussmann jennifer-janes jennifer-jordan jennifer-morante jennifer-noxt jennifer-stewart jennifer-welles jennifer-west jenny jenny-feeling jenny-fields jenny-wings jersey-jaxin jesie-st-james jesse-capelli jessica-bangkok jessica-bogart jessica-darlin jessica-fiorentino jessica-gabriel jessica-laine jessica-may jessica-road jessica-wylde jessi-foster jill-ferari jill-kelly joana-redgrave joan-devlon joanna-storm joanna-sweet jody-maxwell joelle-lequement joelle-petinot johnni-black jordana-james jordan-green jordan-nevaeh jordan-star josephine-carrington joslyn-james julia-chanel julia-dal-fuoco juliana-grandi julia-paes julia-parton julia-perrin julia-swen julia-thomas julie-meadows julie-rage julie-simone juliet-anderson juliet-graham juliette-carelton kacey-jordan kagney-linn-karter kaitlyn-ashley kalena-rios kami-andrews kamila-smith kandee-licks kandi-barbour kapri-styles kara-nox karen-summer kari-foxx karine-gambier karin-schubert karli-sweet karmen-kennedy karol-castro kascha kassi-nova kat kate-frost kate-jones kathia-nobili kathleen-gentry kathleen-white kathy-divan kathy-harcourt kathy-heart kathy-kash katie-cummings katja-love kat-langer katrina-isis katrina-kraven katy-borman katy-caro kaycee-dean kayla-kupcakes kay-parker k-c-valentine keama-kim keira-moon keisha keli-richards kelli-tyler kelly-adams kelly-blue kelly-broox kelly-hearn kelly-kay kelly-kline kelly-nichols kelly-royce kelly-skyline kendra-kay kenzi-marie keri-windsor ketthy-divan kianna-dior kiley-heart kim-alexis kimber-blake kimberly-carson kimberly-kane kimberly-kyle kim-de-place kim-holland kimi-gee kimkim-de kim-kitaine kimmie-lee kimmy-nipples kina-kara kira-eggers kira-red kirsty-waay kitty-langdon kitty-lynxxx kitty-marie kitty-shayne kitty-yung kora-cummings kris-lara krista-lane krista-maze kristara-barrington kristarah-knight kristi-klenot kristina-blonde kristina-king kristina-klevits kristina-soderszk kristine-heller kristin-steen krisztina-ventura krystal-de-boor krystal-steal kylee-karr kylee-nash kylie-brooks kylie-channel kylie-haze kylie-wylde kym-wilde kyoto-sun lachelle-marie lacy-rose lady-amanda-wyldefyre lady-stephanie laetitia-bisset lana-burner lana-cox lana-wood lara-amour lara-roxx lara-stevens lataya-roxx latoya laura-clair laura-lazare laura-lion laura-may laura-orsolya laura-paouck laura-zanzibar lauren-black laurence-boutin lauren-montgomery laurien-dominique laurien-wilde laurie-smith lauryl-canyon lauryn-may leah-wilde lea-magic lea-martini leanna-foxxx lee-caroll leigh-livingston leilani lenora-bruce leslie-winston lesllie-bovee letizia-bruni lexi-lane lexi-matthews lezley-zen lia-fire liliane-gray liliane-lemieuvre lili-marlene lily-gilder lily-labeau lily-rodgers lily-valentine linda-shaw linda-vale linda-wong linnea-quigley lisa-bright lisa-de-leeuw lisa-k-loring lisa-lake lisa-melendez lisa-sue-corey lise-pinson little-oral-annie liza-dwyer liza-harper lizzy-borden logan-labrent lois-ayres lola-cait long-jean-silver loni-bunny loni-sanders loona-luxx lorelei-lee lorelei-rand lorena-sanchez lori-alexia lori-blue lorrie-lovett luci-diamond lucie-doll lucie-theodorova lucy-van-dam lydia-baum lynn-franciss lynn-lemay lynn-ray lynn-stevens lynx-canon lysa-thatcher madelina-ray madison-parker magdalena-lynn maggie-randall mai-lin mandi-wine mandy-bright mandy-malone mandy-may mandy-mistery mandy-starr marcia-minor maren margit-ojetz margitta-hofer margo-stevens margot-mahler mariah-cherry marianne-aubert maria-tortuga marie-anne marie-christine-chireix marie-christine-veroda marie-claude-moreau marie-dominique-cabannes marie-france-morel marie-luise-lusewitz marie-sharp marilyn-chambers marilyne-leroy marilyn-gee marilyn-jess marilyn-martyn marilyn-star marina-hedman marion-webb marita-ekberg marita-kemper marlena marlene-willoughby marry-queen martine-grimaud martine-schultz maryanne-fisher mary-hubay mary-ramunno mary-stuart mascha-mouton maud-kennedy mauvais-denoir maxine-tyler maya-black maya-france megan-leigh megan-martinez megan-reece mei-ling melanie-hotlips melanie-scott melba-cruz melinda-russell melissa-bonsardo melissa-del-prado melissa-golden melissa-martinez melissa-melendez melissa-monet mercedes-dragon mercedes-lynn merle-michaels mesha-lynn mia-beck mia-lina mia-smiles michele-raven michelle-aston michelle-ferrari michelle-greco michelle-maren michelle-maylene michelle-monroe micki-lynn mika-barthel mika-tan mikki-taylor mimi-morgan mindy-rae ming-toy miranda-stevens miss-bunny miss-meadow miss-pomodoro missy missy-graham missy-stone missy-vega misti-jane mistress-candice misty-anderson misty-dawn misty-rain misty-regan mona-lisa mona-page moni monica-baal monica-swinn monika-peta monika-sandmayr monika-unco monique-bruno monique-cardin monique-charell monique-demoan monique-gabrielle monique-la-belle morgan-fairlane morrigan-hel moxxie-maddron mulani-rivera mysti-may nadege-arnaud nadia-styles nadine-bronx nadine-proutnal nadine-roussial nadi-phuket nanci-suiter nancy-hoffman nancy-vee natacha-delyro natalia-wood natalli-diangelo natascha-throat natasha-skyler naudia-nyce nessa-devil nessy-grant nesty nicki-hunter nicky-reed nicole-berg nicole-bernard nicole-black nicole-grey nicole-london nicole-parks nicole-scott nicole-taylor nicolette-fauludi nicole-west nika-blond nika-mamic niki-cole nikita-love nikita-rush nikki-charm nikki-grand nikki-king nikki-knight nikki-randall nikki-rhodes nikki-santana nikki-steele nikki-wilde niko nina-cherry nina-deponca nina-hartley nina-preta oana-efria obaya-roberts olesja-derevko olga-cabaeva olga-conti olga-pechova olga-petrova olivia-alize olivia-del-rio olivia-flores olivia-la-roche olivia-outre ophelia-tozzi orchidea-keresztes orsolya-blonde paige-turner paisley-hunter pamela-bocchi pamela-jennings pamela-mann pamela-stanford pamela-stealt pandora paola-albini pascale-vital pat-manning pat-rhea patricia-dale patricia-diamond patricia-kennedy patricia-rhomberg patrizia-predan patti-cakes patti-petite paula-brasile paula-harlow paula-morton paula-price paula-winters pauline-teutscher penelope-pumpkins penelope-valentin petra-hermanova petra-lamas peyton-lafferty phaedra-grant pia-snow piper-fawn pipi-anderson porsche-lynn porsha-carrera precious-silver priscillia-lenn purple-passion queeny-love rachel-ashley rachel-love rachel-luv rachel-roxxx rachel-ryan rachel-ryder racquel-darrian rane-revere raven reagan-maddux rebecca-bardoux regan-anthony regine-bardot regula-mertens reina-leone reka-gabor renae-cruz renee-foxx renee-lovins renee-morgan renee-perez renee-summers renee-tiffany rhonda-jo-petty rikki-blake riley-ray rio-mariah rita-ricardo roberta-gemma roberta-pedon robin-byrd robin-cannes robin-everett robin-sane rochell-starr rosa-lee-kimball rosemarie roxanne-blaze roxanne-hall roxanne-rollan ruby-richards sabina-k sabre sabrina-chimaera sabrina-dawn sabrina-jade sabrina-johnson sabrina-love-cox sabrina-mastrolorenzi sabrina-rose sabrina-scott sabrina-summers sacha-davril sahara sahara-sands sai-tai-tiger samantha-fox samantha-ryan samantha-sterlyng samantha-strong samueline-de-la-rosa sandra-cardinale sandra-de-marco sandra-kalermen sandra-russo sandy-lee sandy-pinney sandy-reed sandy-samuel sandy-style sandy-summers sara-brandy-canyon sara-faye sarah-bernard sarah-cabrera sarah-hevyn sarah-mills sarah-shine sara-sloane sasha sasha-hollander sasha-ligaya sasha-rose satine-phoenix satin-summer savannah-stern savanna-jane scarlet-scarleau scarlet-windsor seka selena serena serena-south severine-amoux shana-evans shanna-mccullough shannon-kelly shannon-rush shantell-day sharon-da-vale sharon-kane sharon-mitchell shaun-michelle shawna-sexton shawnee-cates shay-hendrix shayne-ryder sheena-horne sheer-delight shelby-star shelby-stevens shelly-berlin shelly-lyons sheri-st-clair sheyla-cats shonna-lynn shyla-foxxx shy-love sierra-sinn sierra-skye sigrun-theil silver-starr silvia-bella silvia-saint silvie-de-lux silvy-taylor simone-west sindee-coxx sindy-lange sindy-shy siobhan-hunter skylar-knight skylar-price skyler-dupree smokie-flame smoking-mary-jane solange-shannon sonya-summers sophia-santi sophie-call sophie-duflot sophie-evans sophie-guers stacey-donovan stacy-lords stacy-moran stacy-nichols stacy-silver stacy-thorn starla-fox starr-wood stefania-bruni stella-virgin stephanie-duvalle stephanie-rage stephanie-renee stevie-taylor summer-knight summer-rose sunny-day sunset-thomas sunshine-seiber susan-hart susanne-brend susan-nero susi-hotkiss suzanne-mcbain suzan-nielsen suzie-bartlett suzie-carina suzi-sparks sweet-nice sweety-pie sybille-rossani sylvia-benedict sylvia-bourdon sylvia-brand sylvia-engelmann syreeta-taylor syren-de-mer syvette szabina-black szilvia-lauren tai-ellis taija-rae taisa-banx talia-james tamara-lee tamara-longley tamara-n-joy tamara-west tami-white tammy tammy-lee tammy-reynolds tania-lorenzo tantala-ray tanya-danielle tanya-fox tanya-foxx tanya-lawson tanya-valis tara-aire tasha-voux tatjana-belousova tatjana-skomorokhova tawnee-lee tawny-pearl tayla-rox taylor-wane teddi-austin teddi-barrett tera-bond tera-heart tera-joy teresa-may teresa-orlowski teri-diver teri-weigel terri-dolan terri-hall tess-ferre tess-newheart thais-vieira tia-cherry tianna tiara tiffany-blake tiffany-clark tiffany-duponte tiffany-rayne tiffany-rousso tiffany-storm tiffany-towers tiffany-tyler tiger-lily tigr timea-vagvoelgyi tina-blair tina-burner tina-evil tina-gabriel tina-loren tina-marie tina-russell tish-ambrose tommi-rose tonisha-mills topsy-curvey tori-secrets tori-sinclair tori-welles tracey-adams traci-lords traci-topps traci-winn tracy-duzit tracy-love tracy-williams tricia-devereaux tricia-yen trinity-loren trisha-rey trista-post trixie-tyler ultramax ursula-gaussmann ursula-moore uschi-karnat valentina valerie-leveau valery-hilton vanessa-chase vanessa-del-rio vanessa-michaels vanessa-ozdanic vanilla-deville velvet-summers veri-knotty veronica-dol veronica-hart veronica-hill veronica-rayne veronica-sage veronika-vanoza via-paxton vicky-lindsay vicky-vicci victoria-evans victoria-gold victoria-knight victoria-luna victoria-paris victoria-slick victoria-zdrok viper virginie-caprice vivian-valentine vivien-martines wendi-white wendy-divine whitney-banks whitney-fears whitney-wonders wonder-tracey wow-nikki xanthia-berstein yasmine-fitzgerald yelena-shieffer yvonne-green zara-whites zsanett-egerhazi zuzie-boobies

A sandwich structured composite is a special class of composite material that is fabricated by attaching two thin but stiff skins to a lightweight but thick core The core material is normally low strength material but its higher thickness provides the sandwich composite with high bending stiffness with overall low density Wood is a naturally occurring composite comprising cellulose fibres in a lignin and hemicellulose matrix Engineered wood includes a wide variety of different products such as wood fibre board plywood oriented strand board wood plastic composite recycled wood fibre in polyethylene matrix Pykrete sawdust in ice matrix Plastic impregnated or laminated paper or textiles Arborite Formica plastic and Micarta Other engineered laminate composites such as Mallite use a central core of end grain balsa wood bonded to surface skins of light alloy or GRP These generate low weight high rigidity materials Products edit Fiber reinforced composite materials have gained popularity despite their generally high cost in high performance products that need to be lightweight yet strong enough to take harsh loading conditions such as aerospace components tails wings fuselages propellers boat and scull hulls bicycle frames and racing car bodies Other uses include fishing rods storage tanks swimming pool panels and baseball bats The new Boeing structure including the wings and fuselage is composed largely of composites Composite materials are also becoming more common in the realm of orthopedic surgery Carbon composite is a key material in today's launch vehicles and heat shields for the re entry phase of spacecraft It is widely used in solar panel substrates antenna reflectors and yokes of spacecraft It is also used in payload adapters inter stage structures and heat shields of launch vehicles Furthermore disk brake systems of airplanes and racing cars are using carbon carbon material and the composite material with carbon fibers and silicon carbide matrix has been introduced in luxury vehicles and sports cars In a fiber reinforced composite pool panel was introduced for in ground swimming pools residential as well as commercial as a non corrosive alternative to galvanized steel In an all composite military Humvee was introduced by TPI Composites Inc and Armor Holdings Inc the first all composite military vehicle By using composites the vehicle is lighter allowing higher payloads In carbon fiber and DuPont Kevlar five times stronger than steel were combined with enhanced thermoset resins to make military transit cases by ECS Composites creating percent lighter cases with high strength Pipes and fittings for various purpose like transportation of potable water fire fighting irrigation seawater desalinated water chemical and industrial waste and sewage are now manufactured in glass reinforced plastics Overview edit Carbon fiber composite part Composites are made up of individual materials referred to as constituent materials There are two main categories of constituent materials matrix and reinforcement At least one portion of each type is required The matrix material surrounds and supports the reinforcement materials by maintaining their relative positions The reinforcements impart their special mechanical and physical properties to enhance the matrix properties A synergism produces material properties unavailable from the individual constituent materials while the wide variety of matrix and strengthening materials allows the designer of the product or structure to choose an optimum combination Engineered composite materials must be formed to shape The matrix material can be introduced to the reinforcement before or after the reinforcement material is placed into the mould cavity or onto the mould surface The matrix material experiences a melding event after which the part shape is essentially set Depending upon the nature of the matrix material this melding event can occur in various ways such as chemical polymerization or solidification from the melted state A variety of moulding methods can be used according to the end item design requirements The principal factors impacting the methodology are the natures of the chosen matrix and reinforcement materials Another important factor is the gross quantity of material to be produced Large quantities can be used to justify high capital expenditures for rapid and automated manufacturing technology Small production quantities are accommodated with lower capital expenditures but higher labour and tooling costs at a correspondingly slower rate Many commercially produced composites use a polymer matrix material often called a resin solution There are many different polymers available depending upon the starting raw ingredients There are several broad categories each with numerous variations The most common are known as polyester vinyl ester epoxy phenolic polyimide polyamide polypropylene PEEK and others The reinforcement materials are often fibres but also commonly ground minerals The various methods described below have been developed to reduce the resin content of the final product or the fibre content is increased As a rule of thumb lay up results in a product containing resin and fibre whereas vacuum infusion gives a final product with resin and fiber content The strength of the product is greatly dependent on this ratio Martin Hubbe and Lucian A Lucia consider wood to be a natural composite of cellulose fibres in a matrix of lignin Constituents edit Matrices edit Resins edit Typically most common polymer based composite materials including fiberglass carbon fiber and Kevlar include at least two parts the substrate and the resin Polyester resin tends to have yellowish tint and is suitable for most backyard projects Its weaknesses are that it is UV sensitive and can tend to degrade over time and thus generally is also coated to help preserve it It is often used in the making of surfboards and for marine applications Its hardener is a peroxide often MEKP methyl ethyl ketone peroxide When the peroxide is mixed with the resin it decomposes to generate free radicals which initiate the curing reaction Hardeners in these systems are commonly called catalysts but since they do not re appear unchanged at the end of the reaction they do not fit the strictest chemical definition of a catalyst Vinylester resin tends to have a purplish to bluish to greenish tint This resin has lower viscosity than polyester resin and is more transparent This resin is often billed as being fuel resistant but will melt in contact with gasoline This resin tends to be more resistant over time to degradation than polyester resin and is more flexible It uses the same hardeners as polyester resin at a similar mix ratio and the cost is approximately the same Epoxy resin is almost totally transparent when cured In the aerospace industry epoxy is used as a structural matrix material or as a structural glue Shape memory polymer SMP resins have varying visual characteristics depending on their formulation These resins may be epoxy based which can be used for auto body and outdoor equipment repairs cyanate ester based which are used in space applications and acrylate based which can be used in very cold temperature applications such as for sensors that indicate whether perishable goods have warmed above a certain maximum temperature These resins are unique in that their shape can be repeatedly changed by heating above their glass transition temperature Tg When heated they become flexible and elastic allowing for easy configuration Once they are cooled they will maintain their new shape The resins will return to their original shapes when they are reheated above their Tg The advantage of shape memory polymer resins is that they can be shaped and reshaped repeatedly without losing their material properties These resins can be used in fabricating shape memory composites Other matrices edit Common matrices include mud wattle and daub cement concrete polymers fiber reinforced plastics metals ceramics and sometimes glass Road surfaces are often made from asphalt concrete which uses bitumen as a matrix Unusual matrices such as ice are sometime proposed as in pykecrete Reinforcements edit Fiber edit Differences in the way the fibers are laid out give different strengths and ease of manufacture Reinforcement usually adds rigidity and greatly impedes crack propagation Thin fibers can have very high strength and provided they are mechanically well attached to the matrix they can greatly improve the composite's overall properties Fiber reinforced composite materials can be divided into two main categories normally referred to as short fiber reinforced materials and continuous fiber reinforced materials Continuous reinforced materials will often constitute a layered or laminated structure The woven and continuous fibre styles are typically available in a variety of forms being pre impregnated with the given matrix resin dry uni directional tapes of various widths plain weave harness satins braided and stitched The short and long fibers are typically employed in compression moulding and sheet moulding operations These come in the form of flakes chips and random mate which can also be made from a continuous fibre laid in random fashion until the desired thickness of the ply laminate is achieved Common fibers used for reinforcement include glass fibers carbon fibers cellulose wood paper fiber and straw and high strength polymers for example aramid Silicon carbide fibers are used for some high temperature applications Other Reinforcement edit Concrete uses aggregate and reinforced concrete additionally uses steel bars rebar to tension the concrete Steel mesh or wires are also used in some glass and plastic products Cores edit Many composite layup designs also include a co curing or post curing of the prepreg with various other media such as honeycomb or foam This is commonly called a sandwich structure This is a more common layup for the manufacture of radomes doors cowlings or non structural parts Open and closed cell structured foams like polyvinylchloride polyurethane polyethylene or polystyrene foams balsa wood syntactic foams and honeycombs are commonly used core materials Open and closed cell metal foam can also be used as core materials Fabrication methods edit Fabrication of composite materials is accomplished by a wide variety of techniques including Advanced fiber placement Automated fiber placement Tailored fiber placement Fiberglass spray lay up process Filament winding Lanxide process Tufting Z pinning Composite fabrication usually involves wetting mixing or saturating the reinforcement with the matrix and then causing the matrix to bind together with heat or a chemical reaction into a rigid structure The operation is usually citation needed done in an open or closed forming mold but the order and ways of introducing the ingredients varies considerably Mold overview edit Within a mold the reinforcing and matrix materials are combined compacted and cured processed to undergo a melding event After the melding event the part shape is essentially set although it can deform under certain process conditions For a thermoset polymeric matrix material the melding event is a curing reaction that is initiated by the application of additional heat or chemical reactivity such as an organic peroxide For a thermoplastic polymeric matrix material the melding event is a solidification from the melted state For a metal matrix material such as titanium foil the melding event is a fusing at high pressure and a temperature near the melting point For many moulding methods it is convenient to refer to one mould piece as a "lower" mould and another mould piece as an "upper" mould Lower and upper refer to the different faces of the moulded panel not the mould's configuration in space In this convention there is always a lower mould and sometimes an upper mould Part construction begins by applying materials to the lower mould Lower mould and upper mould are more generalized descriptors than more common and specific terms such as male side female side a side b side tool side bowl hat mandrel etc Continuous manufacturing uses a different nomenclature The moulded product is often referred to as a panel For certain geometries and material combinations it can be referred to as a casting For certain continuous processes it can be referred to as a profile Vacuum bag moulding edit Vacuum bag moulding uses a flexible film to enclose the part and seal it from outside air A vacuum is then drawn on the vacuum bag and atmospheric pressure compresses the part during the cure Vacuum bag material is available in a tube shape or a sheet of material When a tube shaped bag is used the entire part can be enclosed within the bag When using sheet bagging materials the edges of the vacuum bag are sealed against the edges of the mould surface to enclose the part against an air tight mould When bagged in this way the lower mold is a rigid structure and the upper surface of the part is formed by the flexible membrane vacuum bag The flexible membrane can be a reusable silicone material or an extruded polymer film After sealing the part inside the vacuum bag a vacuum is drawn on the part and held during cure This process can be performed at either ambient or elevated temperature with ambient atmospheric pressure acting upon the vacuum bag A vacuum pump is typically used to draw a vacuum An economical method of drawing a vacuum is with a venturi vacuum and air compressor A vacuum bag is a bag made of strong rubber coated fabric or a polymer film used to compress the part during cure or hardening In some applications the bag encloses the entire material or in other applications a mold is used to form one face of the laminate with the bag being a single layer to seal to the outer edge of the mold face When using a tube shaped bag the ends of the bag are sealed and the air is drawn out of the bag through a nipple using a vacuum pump As a result uniform pressure approaching one atmosphere is applied to the surfaces of the object inside the bag holding parts together while the adhesive cures The entire bag may be placed in a temperature controlled oven oil bath or water bath and gently heated to accelerate curing Vacuum bagging is widely used in the composites industry as well Carbon fiber fabric and fiberglass along with resins and epoxies are common materials laminated together with a vacuum bag operation Woodworking applications In commercial woodworking facilities vacuum bags are used to laminate curved and irregular shaped workpieces Typically polyurethane or vinyl materials are used to make the bag A tube shaped bag is open at both ends The piece or pieces to be glued are placed into the bag and the ends sealed One method of sealing the open ends of the bag is by placing a clamp on each end of the bag A plastic rod is laid across the end of the bag the bag is then folded over the rod A plastic sleeve with an opening in it is then snapped over the rod This procedure forms a seal at both ends of the bag when the vacuum is ready to be drawn A "platen" is sometimes used inside the bag for the piece being glued to lie on The platen has a series of small slots cut into it to allow the air under it to be evacuated The platen must have rounded edges and corners to prevent the vacuum from tearing the bag When a curved part is to be glued in a vacuum bag it is important that the pieces being glued be placed over a solidly built form or have an air bladder placed under the form This air bladder has access to "free air" outside the bag It is used to create an equal pressure under the form preventing it from being crushed Pressure bag molding edit This process is related to vacuum bag molding in exactly the same way as it sounds A solid female mold is used along with a flexible male mold The reinforcement is placed inside the female mold with just enough resin to allow the fabric to stick in place wet lay up A measured amount of resin is then liberally brushed indiscriminately into the mold and the mold is then clamped to a machine that contains the male flexible mold The flexible male membrane is then inflated with heated compressed air or possibly steam The female mold can also be heated Excess resin is forced out along with trapped air This process is extensively used in the production of composite helmets due to the lower cost of unskilled labor Cycle times for a helmet bag moulding machine vary from to minutes but the finished shells require no further curing if the molds are heated Autoclave moulding edit A process using a two sided mould set that forms both surfaces of the panel On the lower side is a rigid mould and on the upper side is a flexible membrane made from silicone or an extruded polymer film such as nylon Reinforcement materials can be placed manually or robotically They include continuous fibre forms fashioned into textile constructions Most often they are pre impregnated with the resin in the form of prepreg fabrics or unidirectional tapes In some instances a resin film is placed upon the lower mould and dry reinforcement is placed above The upper mould is installed and vacuum is applied to the mould cavity The assembly is placed into an autoclave This process is generally performed at both elevated pressure and elevated temperature The use of elevated pressure facilitates a high fibre volume fraction and low void content for maximum structural efficiency Resin transfer moulding RTM edit RTM is a process using a rigid two sided mould set that forms both surfaces of the panel The mould is typically constructed from aluminum or steel but composite molds are sometimes used The two sides fit together to produce a mould cavity The distinguishing feature of resin transfer moulding is that the reinforcement materials are placed into this cavity and the mould set is closed prior to the introduction of matrix material Resin transfer moulding includes numerous varieties which differ in the mechanics of how the resin is introduced to the reinforcement in the mould cavity These variations include everything from the RTM methods used in out of autoclave composite manufacturing for high tech aerospace components to vacuum infusion for resin infusion see also boat building to vacuum assisted resin transfer moulding VARTM This process can be performed at either ambient or elevated temperature Other fabrication methods edit Other types of fabrication include press moulding transfer moulding pultrusion moulding filament winding casting centrifugal casting continuous casting and slip forming There are also forming capabilities including CNC filament winding vacuum infusion wet lay up compression moulding and thermoplastic moulding to name a few The use of curing ovens and paint booths is also needed for some projects Finishing methods edit The finishing of the composite parts is also critical in the final design Many of these finishes will include rain erosion coatings or polyurethane coatings Tooling edit Adhesive may be used interchangeably with glue cement mucilage or paste and is any substance applied to one surface or both surfaces of two separate items that binds them together and resists their separation Adjectives may be used in conjunction with the word “adhesive” to describe properties based on the substance's physical or chemical form the type of materials joined or conditions under which it is applied The use of adhesives offers many advantages over binding techniques such as sewing mechanical fastening thermal bonding etc These include the ability to bind different materials together to distribute stress more efficiently across the joint the cost effectiveness of an easily mechanized process an improvement in aesthetic design and increased design flexibility Disadvantages of adhesive use include decreased stability at high temperatures relative weakness in bonding large objects with a small bonding surface area and greater difficulty in separating objects during testing Adhesives are typically organized by the method of adhesion These are then organized into reactive and non reactive adhesives which refers to whether the adhesive chemically reacts in order to harden Alternatively they can be organized by whether the raw stock is of natural or synthetic origin or by their starting physical phase Adhesives may be found naturally or produced synthetically The earliest human use of adhesive like substances was approximately years ago The first references to adhesives in literature first appeared in approximately BCE The Greeks and Romans made great contributions to the development of adhesives In Europe glue was not widely used until the period CE From then until the s increases in adhesive use and discovery were relatively gradual Only since the last century has the development of synthetic adhesives accelerated rapidly and innovation in the field continues to the present Contents hide History Economic importance Types Types by reactiveness Non reactive adhesives Drying adhesives Pressure sensitive adhesives Contact adhesives Hot adhesives Reactive adhesives Multi part adhesives One part adhesives Types by origin Natural adhesives Synthetic adhesives Application Mechanisms of adhesion Failure of the adhesive joint Cohesive fracture Adhesive fracture Other types of fracture Design of adhesive joints Shelf life See also References Bibliography External links History edit The earliest use of adhesives was discovered in central Italy when two stone flakes partially covered with birch bark tar and a third uncovered stone from the Middle Pleistocene era circa years ago were found This is thought to be the oldest discovered human use of tar hafted stones The birch bark tar adhesive is a simple one component adhesive Although sticky enough plant based adhesives are brittle and vulnerable to environmental conditions The first use of compound adhesives was discovered in Sibudu South Africa Here year old stone segments that were once inserted in axe hafts were discovered covered with an adhesive composed of plant gum and red ochre natural iron oxide as adding ochre to plant gum produces a stronger product and protects the gum from disintegrating under wet conditions The ability to produce stronger adhesives allowed middle stone age humans to attach stone segments to sticks in greater variations which led to the development of new tools More recent examples of adhesive use by prehistoric humans have been found at the burial sites of ancient tribes Archaeologists studying the sites found that approximately years ago the tribesmen had buried their dead together with food found in broken clay pots repaired with tree resins Another investigation by archaeologists uncovered the use of bituminous cements to fasten ivory eyeballs to statues in Babylonian temples dating to approximately BC In a paper revealed the discovery of a year old man nicknamed the "Tyrolean Iceman" or "Ötzi" who was preserved in a glacier near the Austria Italy border Several of his belongings were found with him including two arrows with flint arrowheads and a copper hatchet each with evidence of organic glue used to connect the stone or metal parts to the wooden shafts The glue was analyzed as pitch which requires the heating of tar during its production The retrieval of this tar requires a transformation of birch bark by means of heat in a process known as pyrolysis A reconstruction of Ötzi's axe The first references to adhesives in literature first appeared in approximately BC Further historical records of adhesive use are found from the period spanning – BC Artifacts from this period include paintings depicting wood gluing operations and a casket made of wood and glue in King Tutankhamun's tomb Other ancient Egyptian artifacts employ animal glue for bonding or lamination Such lamination of wood for bows and furniture is thought to have extended their life and was accomplished using casein milk protein based glues The ancient Egyptians also developed starch based pastes for the bonding of papyrus to clothing and a plaster of Paris like material made of calcined gypsum From to AD the Greeks and Romans made great contributions to the development of adhesives Wood veneering and marquetry were developed the production of animal and fish glues refined and other materials utilized Egg based pastes were used to bond gold leaves incorporated various natural ingredients such as blood bone hide milk cheese vegetables and grains The Greeks began the use of slaked lime as mortar while the Romans furthered mortar development by mixing lime with volcanic ash and sand This material known as pozzolanic cement was used in the construction of the Roman Colosseum and Pantheon The Romans were also the first people known to have used tar and beeswax as caulk and sealant between the wooden planks of their boats and ships Beeswax Modern Slaked Lime Factory in Ukraine In Central Asia the rise of the Mongols in approximately AD can be partially attributed to the good range and power of the bows of Genghis Khan's hordes These bows were constructed with laminated lemonwood and bullhorn bonded by an unknown adhesive In Europe glue fell into disuse until the period AD At this time world renowned cabinet and furniture makers such as Chippendale and Duncan Phyfe began to use adhesives to hold their products together The development of modern adhesives began in with the founding of the first commercial glue plant in Holland This plant produced glues from animal hides July 8 – The Vermont Republic (a sovereign nation at the time) abolishes slavery, the first future state to do so. No slaves were held in Vermont. 1780 Pennsylvania becomes the first U.S. state to abolish slavery. 1781 In challenges by Elizabeth Freeman and Quock Walker, two independent county courts in Massachusetts found slavery illegal under state constitution and declared each to be free persons. 1783 Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court affirmed that Massachusetts state constitution had abolished slavery. It ruled that "the granting of rights and privileges [was] wholly incompatible and repugnant to" slavery, in an appeal case arising from the escape of Marijonas Mikutavicius – singer author of Trys Milijonai the unofficial sports anthem in Lithuania Vincas Niekus – lt Vincas Niekus composer Virgilijus Noreika – one of the most successful opera singers tenor Mykolas Kleopas Oginskis – one of the best composer of the late th century Kipras Petrauskas – lt Kipras Petrauskas popular early opera singer tenor Stasys Povilaitis – one of the popular singers during the Soviet period Violeta Riaubiškyte – pop singer TV show host Mindaugas Rojus opera singer tenor baritone Ceslovas Sasnauskas – composer Rasa Serra – lt Rasa Serra real name Rasa Veretenceviene singer Traditional folk A cappella jazz POP Audrone Simonaityte Gaižiuniene – lt Audrone Gaižiuniene Simonaityte one of the more popular female opera singers soprano Virgis Stakenas – lt Virgis Stakenas singer of country folk music Antanas Šabaniauskas – lt Antanas Šabaniauskas singer tenor Jurga Šeduikyte – art rock musician won the Best Female Act and the Best Album of in the Lithuanian Bravo Awards and the Best Baltic Act at the MTV Europe Music Awards Jonas Švedas – composer Michael Tchaban composer singer and songwriter Violeta Urmanaviciute Urmana opera singer soprano mezzosoprano appearing internationally Painters and graphic artists edit See also List of Lithuanian artists Robertas Antinis – sculptor Vytautas Ciplijauskas lt Vytautas Ciplijauskas painter Jonas Ceponis – lt Jonas Ceponis painter Mikalojus Konstantinas Ciurlionis – painter and composer Asteroid Ciurlionis is named for him Kostas Dereškevicius lt Kostas Dereškevicius painter Vladimiras Dubeneckis painter architect Stasys Eidrigevicius graphic artist Pranas Gailius lt Pranas Gailius painter Paulius Galaune Petronele Gerlikiene – self taught Lithuanian American artist Algirdas Griškevicius lt Algirdas Griškevicius Vincas Grybas – sculptor Leonardas Gutauskas lt Leonardas Gutauskas painter writer Vytautas Kairiukštis – lt Vytautas Kairiukštis painter art critic Vytautas Kasiulis – lt Vytautas Kasiulis painter graphic artist stage designer Petras Kalpokas painter Rimtas Kalpokas – lt Rimtas Kalpokas painter graphic artist Leonas Katinas – lt Leonas Katinas painter Povilas Kaupas – lt Povilas Kaupas Algimantas Kezys Lithuanian American photographer Vincas Kisarauskas – lt Vincas Kisarauskas painter graphic artist stage designer Saulute Stanislava Kisarauskiene – lt Saulute Stanislava Kisarauskiene graphic artist painter Stasys Krasauskas – lt Stasys Krasauskas graphic artist Stanislovas Kuzma – lt Stanislovas Kuzma sculptor Antanas Martinaitis – lt Antanas Martinaitis painter Jonas Rimša – lt Jonas Rimša painter Jan Rustem painter Antanas Samuolis – lt Antanas Samuolis painter Šarunas Sauka painter Boris Schatz – sculptor and founder of the Bezalel Academy Irena Sibley née Pauliukonis – Children s book author and illustrator Algis Skackauskas – painter Antanas Žmuidzinavicius – painter Franciszek Smuglewicz – painter Yehezkel Streichman Israeli painter Kazys Šimonis – painter Algimantas Švegžda – lt Algimantas Švegžda painter Otis Tamašauskas Lithographer Print Maker Graphic Artist Adolfas Valeška – painter and graphic artist Adomas Varnas – painter Kazys Varnelis – artist Vladas Vildžiunas lt Vladas Vildžiunas sculptor Mikalojus Povilas Vilutis lt Mikalojus Povilas Vilutis graphic artist Viktoras Vizgirda – painter William Zorach – Modern artist who died in Bath Maine Antanas Žmuidzinavicius – painter Kazimieras Leonardas Žoromskis – painter Politics edit President Valdas Adamkus right chatting with Vice President Dick Cheney left See also List of Lithuanian rulers Mindaugas – the first and only King of Lithuania – Gediminas – the ruler of Lithuania – Algirdas – the ruler together with Kestutis of Lithuania – Kestutis – the ruler together with Algirdas of Lithuania – Vytautas – the ruler of Lithuania – together with Jogaila Jogaila – the ruler of Lithuania – from to together with Vytautas the king of Poland – Jonušas Radvila – the field hetman of Grand Duchy of Lithuania – Dalia Grybauskaite – current President of Lithuania since Valdas Adamkus – President of Lithuania till Jonas Basanavicius – "father" of the Act of Independence of Algirdas Brazauskas – the former First secretary of Central Committee of Communist Party of Lithuanian SSR the former president of Lithuania after and former Prime Minister of Lithuania Joe Fine – mayor of Marquette Michigan – Kazys Grinius – politician third President of Lithuania Mykolas Krupavicius – priest behind the land reform in interwar Lithuania Vytautas Landsbergis – politician professor leader of Sajudis the independence movement former speaker of Seimas member of European Parliament Stasys Lozoraitis – diplomat and leader of Lithuanian government in exile – Stasys Lozoraitis junior – politician diplomat succeeded his father as leader of Lithuanian government in exile – Antanas Merkys – the last Prime Minister of interwar Lithuania Rolandas Paksas – former President removed from the office after impeachment Justas Paleckis – journalist and politician puppet Prime Minister after Soviet occupation Kazimiera Prunskiene – the first female Prime Minister Mykolas Sleževicius – three times Prime Minister organized

Liquid animal glue In the first British glue patent was issued for fish glue The following decades of the next century witnessed the manufacture of casein glues in German and Swiss factories In the first US patent number was issued to the Ross brothers for the production of casein glue Casein glue preparation The first US postage stamps used starch based adhesives when issued in The first US patent number on dextrin a starch derivative adhesive was issued in Natural rubber was first used as material for adhesives starting in In Charles Goodyear discovered that a rubber and sulfur mixture when heated becomes elastic In Thomas Hancock named this process vulcanization In a British patent number was issued for the plating of metal with brass by electrodeposition to obtain a stronger bond to rubber The development of the automobile and the need for rubber shock mounts required stronger and more durable bonds of rubber and metal This spurred the development of cyclized rubber treated in strong acids By this process was used to produce solvent based thermoplastic rubber cements for metal to rubber bonding Natural rubber based sticky adhesives were first used on a backing by Henry Day US Patent in Later these kinds of adhesives were used in cloth backed surgical and electric tapes By the pressure sensitive tape industry was born Today sticky notes Scotch tape and other tapes are examples of PSA pressure sensitive adhesives A key step in the development of synthetic plastics was the introduction of a thermoset plastic known as Bakelite phenolic in Within two years phenolic resin was applied to plywood as a coating varnish In the early s phenolics gained importance as adhesive resins The s s and s witnessed great advances in the development and production of new plastics and resins due to the First and Second World Wars These advances greatly improved the development of adhesives by allowing the use of newly developed materials that exhibited a variety of properties With changing needs and ever evolving technology the development of new synthetic adhesives continues to the present However due to their low cost natural adhesives are still more commonly used Economic importance edit The adhesive manufacturing market was over US billion in in the United States In the course of time and during their development adhesives have gained a stable position in an increasing number of production processes There is hardly any product in our surroundings that does not contain at least one adhesive—be it the label on a beverage bottle protective coatings on automobiles or profiles on window frames Market researchers forecast a turnover of almost US billion for the global adhesives market in In particular the economic development of emerging countries such as China India Russia and Brazil will cause a rising demand for adhesives in the future Types edit This section does not cite any references sources Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed August See also List of glues Adhesives are typically organized by the method of adhesion These are then organized into reactive and non reactive adhesives which refers to whether the adhesive chemically reacts in order to harden Alternatively they can be organized by whether the raw stock is of natural or synthetic origin or by their starting physical phase Types by reactiveness edit Non reactive adhesives edit Drying adhesives edit There are two types of adhesives that harden by drying solvent based adhesives and polymer dispersion adhesives also known as emulsion adhesives Solvent based adhesives are a mixture of ingredients typically polymers dissolved in a solvent White glue contact adhesives and rubber cements are members of the drying adhesive family As the solvent evaporates the adhesive hardens Depending on the chemical composition of the adhesive they will adhere to different materials to greater or lesser degrees Polymer dispersion adhesives are milky white dispersions often based on polyvinyl acetate PVAc They are used extensively in the woodworking and packaging industries They are also used with fabrics and fabric based components and in engineered products such as loudspeaker cones Pressure sensitive adhesives edit The following text needs to be harmonized with text in Pressure sensitive adhesive May Main article Pressure sensitive adhesive Pressure sensitive adhesives PSA form a bond by the application of light pressure to marry the adhesive with the adherend They are designed to have a balance between flow and resistance to flow The bond forms because the adhesive is soft enough to flow i e "wet" to the adherend The bond has strength because the adhesive is hard enough to resist flow when stress is applied to the bond Once the adhesive and the adherend are in close proximity molecular interactions such as van der Waals forces become involved in the bond contributing significantly to its ultimate strength PSAs are designed for either permanent or removable applications Examples of permanent applications include safety labels for power equipment foil tape for HVAC duct work automotive interior trim assembly and sound vibration damping films Some high performance permanent PSAs exhibit high adhesion values and can support kilograms of weight per square centimeter of contact area even at elevated temperatures Permanent PSAs may initially be removable for example to recover mislabeled goods and build adhesion to a permanent bond after several hours or days Removable adhesives are designed to form a temporary bond and ideally can be removed after months or years without leaving residue on the adherend Removable adhesives are used in applications such as surface protection films masking tapes bookmark and note papers barcodes labels price marking labels promotional graphics materials and for skin contact wound care dressings EKG electrodes athletic tape analgesic and transdermal drug patches etc Some removable adhesives are designed to repeatedly stick and unstick They have low adhesion and generally cannot support much weight Pressure sensitive adhesives are manufactured with either a liquid carrier or in solid form Articles are made from liquid PSAs by coating the adhesive and drying off the solvent or water carrier They may be further heated to initiate a cross linking reaction and increase molecular weight solid PSAs may be low viscosity polymers that are coated and then reacted with radiation to increase molecular weight and form the adhesive or they may be high viscosity materials that are heated to reduce viscosity enough to allow coating and then cooled to their final form Major raw material for PSA's are acrylate based polymers Contact adhesives edit Contact adhesives are used in strong bonds with high shear resistance like laminates such as bonding Formica to a wooden counter and in footwear as in attaching outsoles to uppers Natural rubber and polychloroprene Neoprene are commonly used contact adhesives Both of these elastomers undergo strain crystallization In the construction industry a specialised proprietary adhesive known as Liquid Nails or liquid nails as the generic is used This also copes with tasks such as sealing artificial turf Contact adhesives must be applied to both surfaces and allowed some time to dry before the two surfaces are pushed together Some contact adhesives require as long as hours to dry before the surfaces are to be held together Once the surfaces are pushed together the bond forms very quickly It is usually not necessary to apply pressure for a long time so there is less need for clamps Hot adhesives edit A glue gun an example of a hot adhesive Main article Hot melt adhesive Hot adhesives also known as hot melt adhesives are thermoplastics applied in molten form in the – °C range which solidify on cooling to form strong bonds between a wide range of materials Ethylene vinyl acetate based hot melts are particularly popular for crafts because of their ease of use and the wide range of common materials they can join A glue gun shown at right is one method of applying hot adhesives The glue gun melts the solid adhesive then allows the liquid to pass through its barrel onto the material where it solidifies Thermoplastic glue may have been invented around by Procter & Gamble as a solution to the problem that water based adhesives commonly used in packaging at that time failed in humid climates causing packages to open Reactive adhesives edit Multi part adhesives edit Multi component adhesives harden by mixing two or more components which chemically react This reaction causes polymers to cross link into acrylics urethanes and epoxies citation needed There are several commercial combinations of multi component adhesives in use in industry Some of these combinations are Polyester resin – polyurethane resin Polyols – polyurethane resin Acrylic polymers – polyurethane resins The individual components of a multi component adhesive are not adhesive by nature The individual components react with each other after being mixed and show full adhesion only on curing The multi component resins can be either solvent based or solvent less The solvents present in the adhesives are a medium for the polyester or the polyurethane resin The solvent is dried during the curing process One part adhesives edit One part adhesives harden via a chemical reaction with an external energy source such as radiation heat and moisture Ultraviolet UV light curing adhesives also known as light curing materials LCM have become popular within the manufacturing sector due to their rapid curing time and strong bond strength Light curing adhesives can cure in as little as a second and many formulations can bond dissimilar substrates materials and withstand harsh temperatures These qualities make UV curing adhesives essential to the manufacturing of items in many industrial markets such as electronics telecommunications medical aerospace glass and optical Unlike traditional adhesives UV light curing adhesives not only bond materials together but they can also be used to seal and coat products They are generally acrylic based Heat curing adhesives consist of a pre made mixture of two or more components When heat is applied the components react and cross link This type of adhesive includes epoxies urethanes and polyimides Moisture curing adhesives cure when they react with moisture present on the substrate surface or in the air This type of adhesive includes cyanoacrylates and urethanes Types by origin edit Natural adhesives edit Natural adhesives are made from organic sources such as vegetable starch dextrin natural resins or animals e g the milk protein casein and hide based animal glues These are often referred to as bioadhesives One example is a simple paste made by cooking flour in water Starch based adhesives are used in corrugated board and paper sack production paper tube winding and wallpaper adhesives Casein glue is mainly used to adhere glass bottle labels Animal glues have traditionally been used in bookbinding wood joining and many other areas but now are largely replaced by synthetic glues except in specialist applications like the production and repair of stringed instruments Albumen made from the protein component of blood has been used in the plywood industry Masonite a wood hardboard was originally bonded using natural wood lignin an organic polymer though most modern particle boards such as MDF use synthetic thermosetting resins Synthetic adhesives edit Synthetic adhesives are based on elastomers thermoplastics emulsions and thermosets Examples of thermosetting adhesives are epoxy polyurethane cyanoacrylate and acrylic polymers Pressure sensitive adhesive is used in Post it notes The first commercially produced synthetic adhesive was Karlsons Klister in the s Application edit Applicators of different adhesives are designed according to the adhesive being used and the size of the area to which the adhesive will be applied The adhesive is applied to either one or both of the materials being bonded The pieces are aligned and pressure is added to aid in adhesion and rid the bond of air bubbles Common ways of applying an adhesive include brushes rollers using films or pellets spray guns and applicator guns e g caulk gun All of these can be used manually or automated as part of a machine Mechanisms of adhesion edit Main article Adhesion For an adhesive to be effective it must have three main properties It must be able to wet the substrate It must harden and finally it must be able to transmit load between the two surfaces substrates being adhered Adhesion the attachment between adhesive and substrate may occur either by mechanical means in which the adhesive works its way into small pores of the substrate or by one of several chemical mechanisms The strength of adhesion depends on many factors including the means by which it occurs In some cases an actual chemical bond occurs between adhesive and substrate In others electrostatic forces as in static electricity hold the substances together A third mechanism involves the van der Waals forces that develop between molecules A fourth means involves the moisture aided diffusion of the glue into the substrate followed by hardening Failure of the adhesive joint edit Failure of the adhesive joint can occur in different locations There are several factors that could contribute to the failure of two adhered surfaces Sunlight and heat may weaken the adhesive Solvents can deteriorate or dissolve adhesive Physical stresses may also cause the separation of surfaces When subjected to 1904 May 15 – Sigma Pi Phi, the first African-American Greek-letter organization, is founded by African-American men as a professional organization, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Orlando, Florida hires its first black postman. 1905 July 11 – First meeting of the Niagara Movement, an interracial group to work for civil rights.[27] 1906 The Brownsville Affair, which eventually involves President Roosevelt.[27] December 4 – African-American men found Alpha Phi Alpha at Cornell University, the first intercollegiate fraternity for African-American men. 1907 National Primitive Baptist Convention of the U.S.A. formed. 1908 December 26 – Jack Johnson wins the World Heavyweight Title. Alpha Kappa Alpha at Howard University; African-American college women found the first college sorority for African-American women. 1909 February 12 – Planned first meeting of group which would become the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), an interracial group devoted to civil rights. The meeting actually occurs on May 31, but February 12 is normally cited as the NAACP's founding date. May 31 – The National Negro Committee meets and is formed; it will be the precursor to the NAACP. 1910 May 30 – The National Negro Committee chooses "National Association for the Advancement of Colored People" as its organization name. September 29 – Committee on Urban Conditions Among Negroes formed; the next year it will merge with other groups to form the National Urban League. The NAACP begins publishing The Crisis. 1911 January 5 – Kappa Alpha Psi Fraternity, Inc. was founded at Indiana University. November 17 – Omega Psi Phi Fraternity, Inc., which is the first African-American Greek-lettered organization founded at an HBCU (Howard University). 1913 The Moorish Science Temple of America, a religious organization, is founded by Noble Drew Ali (Timothy Drew). January 13 – Delta Sigma Theta Sorority, Inc., was founded at Howard University 1914 January 9 – Phi Beta Sigma Fraternity, Inc. was founded at Howard University by A. Langston Taylor, Leonard F. Morse, and Charles I. Brown Newly elected president Woodrow Wilson orders physical re-segregation of federal workplaces and employment after nearly 50 years of integrated facilities.[28][29][30] 1915 February 8 – The Birth of a Nation is released to film theaters. The NAACP protests in cities across the country, convincing some not to show the film. June 21 – In Guinn v. United States, the U.S. Supreme Court rules against grandfather clauses used to deny blacks the right to vote. September 9 – Professor Carter G. Woodson founds the Association for the Study of African American Life and History in Chicago. A schism from the National Baptist Convention, USA, Inc. forms the National Baptist Convention of America, Inc. 1916 January – Professor Carter Woodson and the Association for the Study of Negro Life and History begins publishing the Journal of Negro History, the first academic journal devoted to the study of African-American history. March 23 – Marcus Garvey arrives in the U.S. (see Garveyism). Los Angeles hires the country's first black female police officer.[citation needed] The Great Migration begins and lasts until 1940. Approximately one and a half million African-Americans move from the Southern United States to the North and Midwest. More than five million migrate in the Second Great Migration from 1940 to 1970, which includes more destinations in California and the West. 1917 May–June – East St. Louis Riot August 23 – Houston Riot In Buchanan v. Warley, the U.S. Supreme Court upholds that racially segregated housing violates the 14th Amendment. 1918 Viola Pettus, an African-American nurse in Marathon, Texas, wins attention for her courageous care of victims of the Spanish Influenza, including members of the Ku Klux Klan. Mary Turner was a 33-year-old lynched in Lowndes County, Georgia who was Eight months pregnant. Turner and her child were murdered after she publicly denounced the extrajudicial killing of her husband by a mob. Her death is considered a stark example of racially motivated mob violence in the American south, and was referenced by the NAACP's anti-lynching campaign of the 1920s, 1930s and 1940s. 1919 Summer – Red Summer of 1919 riots: Chicago, Washington, D.C.; Knoxville, Indianapolis, and elsewhere. September 28 – Omaha Race Riot of 1919, Nebraska. October 1–5 – Elaine Race Riot, Phillips County, Arkansas. Numerous blacks are convicted by an all-white jury or plead guilty. In Moore v. Dempsey (1923), the U.S. Supreme Court overturns six convictions for denial of due process under the Fourteenth Amendment. 1920 February 13 – Negro National League (1920–1931) established. Fritz Pollard and Bobby Marshall are the first two African-American players in the National Football League (NFL). Pollard goes on to become the first African-American coach in the NFL. January 16 – Zeta Phi Beta Sorority, Inc., was founded at Howard University 1921 May 23 – Shuffle Along is the first major African American hit musical on Broadway. May 31 – Tulsa Race Riot, Oklahoma Bessie Coleman becomes the first African American to earn a pilot's license. 1923 Garrett A. Morgan invented and patented the first automatic three-position traffic light.[31] January 1–7 – Rosewood massacre: Six African Americans and two whites die in a week of violence when a white woman in Rosewood, Florida, claims she was beaten and raped by a black man. February 19 – In Moore v. Dempsey, the U.S. Supreme Court holds that mob-dominated trials violate the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. Jean Toomer's novel Cane is published. 1924 Knights of Columbus commissions and publishes The Gift of Black Folk: The Negroes in the Making of America by civil rights activist and NAACP cofounder W. E. B. Du Bois as part of the organization's Racial Contribution Series. Spelman Seminary becomes Spelman College. 1925–1949[edit] 1925 Spring – American Negro Labor Congress is founded. August 8 – 35,000 Ku Klux Klan members march in Washington, D.C. (see List of protest marches on Washington, D.C.) Countee Cullen publishes his first collection of poems in Color. Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters is organized. The Harlem Renaissance (also known as the New Negro Movement) is named after the anthology The New Negro, edited by Alain Locke . 1926 The Harlem Globetrotters are founded. Historian Carter G. Woodson proposes Negro History Week. Corrigan v Buckley challenges deed restrictions preventing a white seller from selling to a black buyer. The U.S. Supreme Court rules in favor of Buckley, stating that the 14th Amendment does not apply because Washington, DC is a city and not a state, thereby rendering the Due Process Clause inapplicable. Also, that the Due Process Clause does not apply to private agreements. 1928 Claude McKay's Home to Harlem wins the Harmon Gold Award for Literature. 1929 The League of United Latin American Citizens, the first organization to fight for the civil rights of Latino Americans, is founded in Corpus Christi, Texas. John Hope becomes president of Atlanta University. Graduate classes are offered in the liberal arts, and Atlanta University becomes the first predominantly black university to offer graduate education. Unknown – Hallelujah! is released, one of the first films to star an all-black cast. 1930 August 7 – Thomas Shipp and Abram Smith were African-American men lynched in Marion, Indiana, after being taken from jail and beaten by a mob. They had been arrested that night as suspects in a robbery, murder and rape case. A third African-American suspect, 16-year-old James Cameron, had also been arrested and narrowly escaped being killed by the mob. He later became a civil rights activist.[32] The League of Struggle for Negro Rights is founded in New York City. Jessie Daniel Ames forms the Association of Southern Women for the Prevention of Lynching. She gets 40,000 white women to sign a pledge against lynching and for change in the South.[33] 1931 March 25 – Scottsboro Boys arrested in what would become a nationally controversial case. Walter Francis White becomes the executive secretary of the NAACP. 1932 The Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male begins at Tuskegee University. 1933 Hocutt v. Wilson unsuccessfully challenged segregation in higher education in the United States. 1934 Wallace D. Fard, leader of the Nation of Islam, mysteriously disappears. He is succeeded by Elijah Muhammad. 1935 June 18 – In Murray v. Pearson, Thurgood Marshall and Charles Hamilton Houston of the NAACP successfully argue the landmark case in Maryland to open admissions to the segregated University of Maryland School of Law on the basis of equal protection under the Fourteenth Amendment. Jesse Owens wins gold medals in front of Hitler. 1936 August – American sprinter Jesse Owens wins four gold medals at the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin. 1937 6.2.1 General works 6.2.2 Baseball 6.2.3 Boxing 6.2.4 Chess 6.2.5 Olympics Athletes[edit] Baseball[edit] Ryan Braun, outfielder (Milwaukee Brewers) Ike Davis, first baseman (Oakland Athletics) Ian Kinsler, second baseman (Detroit Tigers) Ryan Lavarnway, catcher (Atlanta Braves) Jason Marquis, pitcher (Cincinnati Reds) Joc Pederson, outfielder (Los Angeles Dodgers) Kevin Youkilis, first and third baseman Cal Abrams, US, outfielder[2] Rubén Amaro, Jr., US, outfielder, general manager (Philadelphia Phillies)[2] Morrie Arnovich, US, outfielder, All-Star[2] Brad Ausmus, US, catcher, All-Star, 3x Gold Glove, manager of the Detroit Tigers[2] José Bautista, Dominican-born, pitcher[2] Robert "Bo" Belinsky, U.S., pitcher. Pitched no-hit game as rookie with Los Angeles Angels in 1962.[3] Moe Berg, US, catcher & shortstop, and spy for US in World War II[2] Ron Blomberg, US, DH/first baseman/outfielder, Major League Baseball's first designated hitter[4] Lou Boudreau, US, shortstop, 8x All-Star, batting title, MVP, Baseball Hall of Fame, manager[2] Ralph Branca, US, pitcher, 3x All-Star[5] Ryan Braun, US, outfielder, 2007 Rookie of the Year, home run champion, 5x All-Star, 5x Silver Slugger, 2011 National League MVP (Milwaukee Brewers)[6] Craig Breslow, US, relief pitcher (Boston Red Sox)[2] Mark Clear, US, relief pitcher, 2x All-Star[7] Andy Cohen, US, second baseman, coach Harry Danning, US, catcher, 4x All-Star[2][8] Ike Davis, US, first baseman (Oakland Athletics)[9] Moe Drabowsky, US, pitcher[10] Harry Eisenstat, US, pitcher[11] Mike Epstein, US, first baseman[2] Harry Feldman, US, pitcher[2] Scott Feldman, US, pitcher (Houston Astros)[2] Gavin Fingleson, South African-born Australian, Olympic silver medalist[12] Nate Freiman, US, first baseman (Oakland Athletics)[13][14] Sam Fuld, US, outfielder (Oakland Athletics)[15] Sid Gordon, US, outfielder & third baseman, 2x All-Star[2] John Grabow, US, relief pitcher[2] Shawn Green, US, right fielder, 2x All-Star, Gold Glove, Silver Slugger[2] Hank Greenberg, US, first baseman & outfielder, 5x All-Star, 4x home run champion, 4x RBI leader, 2x MVP, Baseball Hall of Fame[2] Ken Holtzman, US, starting pitcher, 2x All-Star[2] Joe Horlen, US, pitcher, All-Star, ERA leader[2] Gabe Kapler, US, outfielder[2] Ian Kinsler, US, second baseman, 3x All-Star (Detroit Tigers)[16] Sandy Koufax, US, starting pitcher, 6x All-Star, 5x ERA leader, 4x strikeouts leader, 3x Wins leader, 2x W-L% leader, 1 perfect game, MVP, 3x Cy Young Award, Baseball Hall of Fame[2] Barry Latman, US, pitcher[11] Ryan Lavarnway, US, catcher (Atlanta Braves)[17] Al Levine, US, relief pitcher[2] Mike Lieberthal, US, catcher, 2x All-Star, Gold Glove[2] Elliott Maddox, US, outfielder & third baseman[2] Jason Marquis, US, starting pitcher, Silver Slugger, All Star (Cincinnati Reds)[2] Erskine Mayer, US, pitcher[2] Bob Melvin, US, catcher & manager of the Oakland Athletics[18] Jon Moscot, US, pitcher (Cincinnati Reds)[19] Jeff Newman, US, catcher & first baseman, All-Star, manager[2] Joc Pederson, US, outfielder (Los Angeles Dodgers)[20] Barney Pelty, US, pitcher[2] Lipman Pike, US, outfielder, second baseman, & manager, 4x home run champion, RBI leader[2] Kevin Pillar, US, outfielder (Toronto Blue Jays) Aaron Poreda, US, pitcher (Yomiuri Giants)[2] Scott Radinsky, US, relief pitcher[2] Dave Roberts, US, pitcher[2] Saul Rogovin, US, pitcher[2] Al "Flip" Rosen, US, third baseman & first baseman, 4x All-Star, 2x home run champion, 2x RBI leader, MVP[2] Goody Rosen, Canada, outfielder, All-Star[2] Josh Satin, US, second baseman (Cincinnati Reds)[21] Richie Scheinblum, US, outfielder, All-Star[2] Scott Schoeneweis, US, pitcher[2] Michael Schwimer, US, relief pitcher (Toronto Blue Jays)[22] Art Shamsky, US, outfielder & first baseman[2] Larry Sherry, US, relief pitcher[2] Norm Sherry, US, catcher & manager[2] Moe "the Rabbi of Swat" Solomon, US, outfielder[2] George Stone, US, outfielder, 1x batting title[23] Steve Stone, US, starting pitcher, All-Star, Cy Young Award[2] Danny Valencia, US, third baseman (Oakland Athletics)[24] Phil "Mickey" Weintraub, US, first baseman & outfielder Josh Whitesell, US, first baseman (Saraperos de Saltillo)[25] Steve Yeager, US, catcher[2] Kevin Youkilis, US, first baseman, third baseman, & left fielder, 3x All-Star, Gold Glove, Hank Aaron Award[2] Josh Zeid, US, pitcher for the Detroit Tigers Basketball[edit] Omri Casspi Jordan Farmar Gal Mekel Jon Scheyer Sam Balter, US, 5' 10" guard, Olympic champion[8][26] Sue Bird, US & Israel, WNBA 5' 9" point guard, 2x Olympic champion, 4x All-Star (Seattle Storm)[27] David Blatt, US & Israel, Israeli Premier League 6' 3.5" point guard, coached Russia National Basketball Team, Israel's Maccabi Tel Aviv to Euroleague Championship, Euroleague Coach of the Year, 4x Israeli Coach of the Year, Head Coach of Cleveland Cavaliers[28][29] David Blu (formerly "Bluthenthal"), US & Israel, Euroleague 6' 7" forward (Maccabi Tel Aviv)[30] Harry Boykoff, US, NBA 6' 10" center[31] Tal Brody, US & Israel, Euroleague 6' 2" shooting guard[8] Larry Brown, US, ABA 5' 9" point guard, 3x All-Star, 3x assists leader, NCAA National Championship coach (1988), NBA coach, Olympic champion, Hall of Fame[8][26] Omri Casspi, Israel, 6' 9" small forward, drafted in 1st round of 2009 NBA Draft (Sacramento Kings)[32] Shay Doron, Israel & US, WNBA 5' 9" guard (New York Liberty)[33] Lior Eliyahu, Israel, 6' 9" power forward, NBA draft 2006 (Orlando Magic; traded to Houston Rockets), playing in the Euroleague (Hapoel Jerusalem)[34] Jordan Farmar, US, NBA 6' 2" point guard (Los Angeles Clippers)[35] Marty Friedman, US, 5' 7" guard & coach, Hall of Fame[8] Ernie Grunfeld, Romania-born US, NBA 6' 6" guard/forward & GM, Olympic champion[36] Yotam Halperin, Israel, 6' 5" guard, drafted in 2006 NBA draft by Seattle SuperSonics (Hapoel Jerusalem)[34] Sonny Hertzberg, US, NBA 5' 9" point guard, original NY Knickerbocker[37] Art Heyman, US, NBA 6' 5" forward/guard[37] Nat Holman, US, ABL 5' 11" guard & coach, Hall of Fame[8] Red Holzman, US, BAA & NBA 5' 10" guard, 2x All-Star, & NBA coach, NBA Coach of the Year, Hall of Fame[8] Eban Hyams, India-Israel-Australia, 6' 5" guard formerly of the Australian National Basketball League, Israeli Super League, first ever Indian national to play in ULEB competitions[38] Barry Kramer, first team All-American at NYU in 1963 Joel Kramer, US Phoenix Suns 6'7" forward Sylven Landesberg, US, 6' 6" former UVA shooting guard (Maccabi Tel Aviv)[39] Rudy LaRusso, US, NBA 6' 7" forward/center, 5x All-Star[40] Nancy Lieberman, US, WNBA player, general manager, & coach, Olympic silver, Hall of Fame[26][41] Gal Mekel, Israel, NBA 6' 3" point guard (Dallas Mavericks)[42] Bernard Opper, US, NBL and ABL 5' 10" guard, All-American at University of Kentucky Donna Orender (née Geils), US, Women's Pro Basketball League 5' 7" point guard, All-Star, current WNBA president[37] Lennie Rosenbluth, US, NBA 6' 4" forward[36] Danny Schayes, US, NBA 6' 11" center/forward (son of Dolph Schayes)[37] Dolph Schayes, US, NBA 6' 7" forward/center, 3x FT% leader, 1x rebound leader, 12x All-Star, Hall of Fame, & coach (father of Danny Schayes)[8] Ossie Schectman, US, NBA 6' 0" guard, scorer of first NBA basket[36] Doron Sheffer, US (college), Maccabi Tel Aviv,Hapoel Jerusalem Jon Scheyer, US, All-American Duke University 6' 5" shooting guard & point guard (Maccabi Tel Aviv)[43] Barney Sedran, US, Hudson River League & New York State League 5' 4" guard, Hall of Fame[8] Sidney Tannenbaum, US, BAA 6' 0" guard, 2x All-American, left as NYU all-time scorer[8] Alex Tyus, US & Israel, 6' 8" power forward/center (Maccabi Tel Aviv) Neal Walk, US, NBA 6' 10" center[37] Max Zaslofsky, US, NBA 6' 2" guard/forward, 1x FT% leader, 1x points leader, All-Star, ABA coach[8] Bowling[edit] Barry Asher, 10 PBA titles, PBA Hall of Fame[7] Marshall Holman, 22 PBA titles (11th all-time); PBA Hall of Fame[44] Mark Roth, 34 PBA titles (5th all-time); PBA Hall of Fame[45] Boxing[edit] Yuri Foreman Zab Judah Dmitry Salita Barney Aaron (Young), English-born US lightweight, Hall of Fame[46] Abe Attell ("The Little Hebrew"), US, world champion featherweight, Hall of Fame[8] Monte Attell ("The Knob Hill Terror"), US, bantamweight[47] Max Baer ("Madcap Maxie"), US, world champion heavyweight. Wore a Star of David on his trunks; inducted into the International Jewish Sports Hall of Fame. Hall of Fame/[48] Benny Bass ("Little Fish"), US, world champion featherweight & world champion junior lightweight, Hall of Fame[8] Fabrice Benichou, France, world champion super bantamweight[34] Jack Kid Berg (Judah Bergman), England, world champion junior welterweight, wore a Star of David on his trunks, Hall of Fame[8] Maxie Berger, Canada, wore a Star of David on his trunks[49] Samuel Berger, US, Olympic champion heavyweight[8] Jack Bernstein (also "John Dodick", "Kid Murphy", and "Young Murphy"), US, world champion junior lightweight[8] Nathan "Nat" Bor, US, Olympic bronze lightweight[26] Mushy Callahan (Vincente Sheer), US, world champion light welterweight[47] Joe Choynski ("Chrysanthemum Joe"), US, heavyweight, Hall of Fame[8][50] Robert Cohen, French & Algerian, world champion bantamweight[8] Al "Bummy" Davis (Abraham Davidoff), US, welterweight & lightweight, wore a Star of David on his trunks[47] Louis "Red" Deutsch, US, heavyweight, later famous as the proprietor of the Tube Bar in Jersey City, NJ and inspiration for Moe Szyslak on "The Simpsons" Carolina Duer ("The Turk"), Argentine, WBO world champion super flyweight and bantamweight[51] John "Jackie" Fields (Jacob Finkelstein), US, world champion welterweight & Olympic champion featherweight, Hall of Fame[8] Hagar Finer, Israel, WIBF champion bantamweight[52] Yuri Foreman, Belarusian-born Israeli US middleweight and World Boxing Association champion super welterweight[53] György Gedó, Hungary, Olympic champion light flyweight[41] Abe Goldstein, US, world champion bantamweight[54] Ruby Goldstein ("Ruby the Jewel of the Ghetto"), US, welterweight, wore a Star of David on his trunks[8] Roman Greenberg ("The Lion from Zion"), Israel, International Boxing Organization's Intercontinental champion heavyweight[53] Stéphane Haccoun, France, featherweight, super featherweight, and junior lightweight[55][56] Alphonse Halimi ("La Petite Terreur"), France, world champion bantamweight[8] Harry Harris ("The Human Hairpin"), US, world champion bantamweight[8] Gary Jacobs, Scottish, British, Commonwealth, and European (EBU) champion welterweight[57] Ben Jeby (Morris Jebaltowsky), US, world champion middleweight[47] Yoel Judah, US, 3x world champion kickboxer and boxer & trainer[58] Zab Judah ("Super"), US, world champion junior welterweight & world champion welterweight (Converted to Christianity)[58][59][60][61] Louis Kaplan ("Kid Kaplan"), Russian-born US, world champion featherweight, Hall of Fame[8][50] Solly Krieger ("Danny Auerbach"), US, world champion middleweight[8] Julie Kogon US, 1947 New England Lightweight Champion. Inducted into the Connecticut Boxing Hall of Fame. Benny Leonard (Benjamin Leiner; "The Ghetto Wizard"), US, world champion lightweight, Hall of Fame[8] Battling Levinsky (Barney Lebrowitz), US, world champion light heavyweight, Hall of Fame[8] King Levinsky (Harry Kraków), US, heavweight, also known as Kingfish Levinsky[8] Harry Lewis (Harry Besterman), US, world champion welterweight[47] Ted "Kid" Lewis (Gershon Mendeloff), England, world champion welterweight, Hall of Fame[8] Sammy Luftspring, Canada, Canadian champion welterweight, Canada's Sports Hall of Fame[47] Saoul Mamby, US, world champion junior welterweight[47] Al McCoy (Alexander Rudolph), US, world champion middleweight[8] Daniel Mendoza, England, world champion heavyweight, Hall of Fame[8] Jacob Michaelsen, Denmark, Olympic bronze heavyweight[26] Samuel Mosberg, US, Olympic champion lightweight[8] Bob Olin, US, world champion light heavyweight[62] Victor Perez ("Young"), Tunisian, world champion flyweight[8] Harold Reitman ("The Boxing Doctor"), professional heavyweight that fought while working as surgeon, Golden Gloves champion.[63] Charlie Phil Rosenberg ("Charles Green"), US, world champion bantamweight[8] Dana Rosenblatt ("Dangerous"), US, world champion middleweight[64] Maxie Rosenbloom ("Slapsie"), US, world champion light heavyweight, wore a Star of David on his trunks, Hall of Fame[8] Barney Ross (Dov-Ber Rasofsky), US, world champion lightweight & junior welterweight, Hall of Fame[8] Mike Rossman (Michael Albert DiPiano; "The Jewish Bomber"), US, world champion light heavyweight, wore Star of David on trunks[64] Shamil Sabirov, Russia, Olympic champion light flyweight[26] Dmitry Salita ("Star of David"), US, North American Boxing Association champion light welterweight[65] Isadore "Corporal Izzy" Schwartz ("The Ghetto Midget"), US, world champion flyweight[8] Al Singer ("The Bronx Beauty"), US, world champion lightweight[47] "Lefty" Lew Tendler, US, bantamweight, lightweight, and welterweight, wore a Star of David on his trunks, Hall of Fame[8] Sid Terris ("Ghost of the Ghetto"), US, lightweight, wore a Star of David on his trunks[54] Matt Wels, England, champion of Great Britain lightweight and world champion welterweight Canoeing[edit] Jessica Fox Shaun Rubenstein László Fábián, Hungary, sprint canoer, Olympic champion (K-2 10,000 meter), 4x world champion (3x K-2 10,000 meter and 1x K-4 10,000 meter) and one silver (K-4 10,000 meter)[26] Imre Farkas, Hungary, sprint canoer, 2x Olympic bronze (C-2 1,000 and 10,000 meter)[66] Jessica Fox, French-born Australian, slalom canoer, Olympic silver (K-1 slalom), world championships bronze (C-1)[67] Myriam Fox-Jerusalmi, France, slalom canoer, Olympic bronze (K-1 slalom), 5 golds at ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships (2x K-1, 3x K-1 team)[41] Klára Fried-Bánfalvi, Hungary, sprint canoer, Olympic bronze (K-2 500 m), world champion (K-2 500 m)[26] Leonid Geishtor, USSR (Belarus), sprint canoer, Olympic champion (Canadian pairs 1,000-meter)[41] Joe Jacobi, US, slalom canoer, Olympic champion (Canadian slalom pairs)[41] Michael Kolganov, Soviet (Uzbek)-born Israeli, sprint canoer, world champion, Olympic bronze (K-1 500-meter)[41] Anna Pfeffer, Hungary, sprint canoer, Olympic 2x silver (K-2 500 m), bronze (K-1 500 m); world champion (K-2 500 m), silver (K-4 500 m), 2x bronze (K-2 500)[26] Naum Prokupets, Moldovan-born Soviet, sprint canoer, Olympic bronze (C-2 1,000-meter), gold (C-2 10,000-meter) at ICF Canoe Sprint World Championships[41] Leon Rotman, Romanian, sprint canoer, 2x Olympic champion (C-1 10,000 meter, C-1 1,000-meter) and bronze (C-1 1,000-meter), 14 national titles[41] Shaun Rubenstein, South Africa, canoer, World Marathon champion 2006[68] Cricket[edit] Michael Klinger Ben Ashkenazi, Australia (Victorian Bushrangers) Ali Bacher, South Africa, batsman and administrator (relative of Adam Bacher)[69] Mike Barnard, England, cricketer[69] Mark Bott, England, cricketer[70] Stevie Eskinazi, South African born, Australian raised, English wicketkeeper Mark Fuzes. Australian all rounder played for Hong Kong. Father Peter Fuzes kept goal for Australian Soccer team (see)[71] Dennis Gamsy, South Africa, Test wicket-keeper[72] Darren Gerard, England, cricketer[73] Norman Gordon, South Africa, fast bowler[69] Steven Herzberg, English-born Australian, cricketer[74] Sid Kiel, South Africa, opening batsman (Western Province)[75] Michael Klinger, Australia, batsman (Western Warriors)[69] Leonard "Jock" Livingston, Australia, cricketer[69] Bev Lyon, England, cricketer[69] Dar Lyon, England, cricketer (brother of Bev)[69] Greg, Jason, and Lara Molins, two brothers and a cousin from the same Irish family[74] Jon Moss, Australia, allrounder (Victorian Bushrangers)[69] John Raphael, England, batsman[69] Marshall Rosen, NSW Australia, cricketer and selector[76] Lawrence Seeff, South Africa, batsmen[77] Maurice Sievers, Australia, lower order batsman and fast-medium bowler[69] Bensiyon Songavkar, India, cricketer, MVP of 2009 Maccabiah Games cricket tournament[78] Fred Susskind, South Africa, Test batsman[69] Fred Trueman, England, English test fast bowler (a lifelong Christian)[69] Julien Wiener, Australia, Test cricketer[69] Mandy Yachad, South Africa, Test cricketer[69] Equestrian[edit] Margie Goldstein-Engle Robert Dover, US, 4x Olympic bronze, 1x world championship bronze (dressage)[79] Margie Goldstein-Engle, US, world championship silver, Pan American Games gold, silver, and bronze (jumping)[80] Edith Master, US, Olympic bronze (dressage)[26] Fencing[edit] Helene Mayer Soren Thompson Henri Anspach, Belgium (épée & foil), Olympic champion[26] Paul Anspach, Belgium (épée & foil), 2x Olympic champion[26] Norman Armitage (Norman Cohn), US (sabre), 17x US champion, Olympic bronze[26] Albert "Albie" Axelrod, US (foil); Olympic bronze, 4x US champion[8] Péter Bakonyi, Hungary (saber), Olympic 3x bronze[41] Cliff Bayer, US (foil); youngest US champion[37] Albert Bogen (Albert Bógathy), Austria (saber), Olympic silver[41] Tamir Bloom, US (épée); 2x US champion[37] Daniel Bukantz, US (foil); 4x US champion[37] Sergey Sharikov, Russia (saber), 2x Olympic champion, silver, bronze[26] Yves Dreyfus, France (épée), Olympic bronze, French champion[26] Ilona Elek, Hungary (saber), 2x Olympic champion[26] Boaz Ellis, Israel (foil), 5x Israeli champion[34] Siegfried "Fritz" Flesch, Austria (sabre), Olympic bronze[26] Dr. Dezsö Földes, Hungary (saber), 2x Olympic champion[26] Dr. Jenö Fuchs, Hungary (saber), 4x Olympic champion[81] Támas Gábor, Hungary (épée), Olympic champion[8] János Garay, Hungary (saber), Olympic champion, silver, bronze, killed by the Nazis[8] Dr. Oskar Gerde, Hungary (saber), 2x Olympic champion, killed by the Nazis[26] Dr. Sándor Gombos, Hungary (saber), Olympic champion[62] Vadim Gutzeit, Ukraine (saber), Olympic champion[82] Johan Harmenberg, Sweden (épée), Olympic champion[26] Delila Hatuel, Israel (foil), Olympian, ranked # 9 in world[83] Lydia Hatuel-Zuckerman, Israel (foil), 6x Israeli champion[84][85] Dr. Otto Herschmann, Austria (saber), Olympic silver[26] Emily Jacobson, US (saber), NCAA champion[86] Sada Jacobson, US (saber), ranked # 1 in the world, Olympic silver, 2x bronze[86] Allan Jay, British (épée & foil), Olympic 2x silver, world champion[26] Endre Kabos, Hungary (saber), 3x Olympic champion, bronze[26] Roman Kantor, Poland (épée), Nordic champion & Soviet champion, killed by the Nazis[26] Dan Kellner, US (foil), US champion[86] Byron Krieger, US[87] Grigory Kriss, Soviet (épée), Olympic champion, 2x silver[26] Allan Kwartler, US (saber), 3x Pan American Games champion[10] Alexandre Lippmann, France (épée), 2x Olympic champion, 2x silver, bronze[8] Helene Mayer, Germany & US (foil), Olympic champion[26] Ljubco Georgievski ????? ??????????? Kiro Gligorov ???? ???????? Nikola Gruevski ?????? ???????? Gjorge Ivanov ????? ?????? Gordana Jankuloska ??????? ?????????? Zoran Jolevski ????? ???????? Srgjan Kerim ????? ????? Lazar Koliševski ????? ?????????? Hari Kostov ???? ?????? Trifun Kostovski ?????? ????????? Ilinka Mitreva ?????? ??????? Lazar Mojsov ????? ?????? Tito Petkovski ???? ????????? Lui Temelkovski ??? ??????????? Boris Trajkovski ????? ?????????? Vasil Tupurkovski ????? ??????????? Zoran Zaev ????? ???? Partisans World War II freedom fighters edit Mirce Acev ????? ???? Mihajlo Apostolski ????j?? ?????????? Cede Filipovski Dame ???? ?????????? ???? Blagoj Jankov Muceto ?????? ?????? ?????? Orce Nikolov ???? ??????? Strašo Pindžur ?????? ?????? Hristijan Todorovski Karpoš ????????? ?????????? ?????? Revolutionaries edit Yordan Piperkata ?????? ???????? ????????? Goce Delcev ???? ????? Petar Pop Arsov ????? ??? ????? Dame Gruev ???? ????? Jane Sandanski ???? ????????? Dimitar Pop Georgiev Berovski ??????? ??? ???????? ???????? Ilyo Voyvoda ???? ??? ?????????? Pere Tošev ???? ????? Pitu Guli ???? ???? Dimo Hadži Dimov ???? ???? ????? Hristo Uzunov ?????? ?????? Literature edit Gjorgji Abadžiev ????? ??????? Petre M Andreevski ????? ? ?????????? Maja Apostoloska ???? ??????????? Dimitrija Cupovski ????????? ???????? Jordan Hadži Konstantinov Džinot ?????? ???? ???????????? ????? Vasil Iljoski ????? ?????? Slavko Janevski ?????? ???????? Blaže Koneski ????? ??????? Risto Krle ????? ???? Vlado Maleski ????? ??????? Mateja Matevski ?????? ???????? Krste Misirkov ????? ????????? Kole Nedelkovski ???? ??????????? Olivera Nikolova Anton Panov ????? ????? Gjorche Petrov ????? ?????? Vidoe Podgorec ????? ???????? Aleksandar Prokopiev ?????????? ????????? Koco Racin ???? ????? Jovica Tasevski Eternijan ?????? ???????? ????????? Gane Todorovski ???? ?????????? Stevan Ognenovski ?????? ?????????? Music edit Classical music edit Composers edit Atanas Badev ?????? ????? Dimitrije Bužarovski ????????? ?????????? Kiril Makedonski ????? ?????????? Toma Prošev ???? ?????? Todor Skalovski ????? ????????? Stojan Stojkov ?????? ??????? Aleksandar Džambazov ?????????? ???????? Conductors edit Borjan Canev ?????? ????? Instrumentalists edit Pianists Simon Trpceski ????? ???????? Opera singers edit Blagoj Nacoski ?????? ??????? Boris Trajanov ????? ???????? Popular and folk music edit Composers edit Darko Dimitrov ????? ???????? Slave Dimitrov ????? ???????? Jovan Jovanov ????? ??????? Ilija Pejovski ????? ???????? Musicians edit Bodan Arsovski ????? ???????? Goran Trajkoski ????? ????????? Ratko Dautovski ????? ????????? Kiril Džajkovski ????? ????????? Tale Ognenovski ???? ?????????? Vlatko Stefanovski ?????? ??????????? Stevo Teodosievski ????? ???????????? Aleksandra Popovska ?????????? ???????? Singers and Bands edit Lambe Alabakoski ????? ?????????? Anastasia ????????? Arhangel ???????? Kristina Arnaudova ???????? ????????? Kaliopi Bukle ??????? Dani Dimitrovska ???? ??????????? Riste Tevdoski ????? ???????? Karolina Goceva ???????? ?????? Vaska Ilieva ????? ?????? Andrijana Janevska ????????? ???????? Vlado Janevski ????? ???????? Jovan Jovanov ????? ??????? Leb i sol ??? ? ??? Aleksandar Makedonski ?????????? ?????????? Elvir Mekic ????? ????? Mizar ????? Jasmina Mukaetova ??????? ????e???? The Malagasy French Malgache are the ethnic group that forms nearly the entire population of Madagascar They are divided into two subgroups the "Highlander" Merina Sihanaka and Betsileo of the central plateau around Antananarivo Alaotra Ambatondrazaka and Fianarantsoa and the "coastal dwellers" elsewhere in the country This division has its roots in historical patterns of settlement The original Austronesian settlers from Borneo arrived between the third and tenth centuries and established a network of principalities in the Central Highlands region conducive to growing the rice they had carried with them on their outrigger canoes Sometime later a large number of settlers arrived from East Africa and established kingdoms along the relatively unpopulated coastlines The difference in ethnic origins remains somewhat evident between the highland and coastal regions In addition to the ethnic distinction between highland and coastal Malagasy one may speak of a political distinction as well Merina monarchs in the late th and early th century united the Merina principalities and brought the neighboring Betsileo people under their administration first They later extended Merina control over the majority of the coastal areas as well The military resistance and eventual defeat of most of the coastal communities assured their subordinate position vis à vis the Merina Betsileo alliance During the th and th centuries the French colonial administration capitalized on and further exacerbated these political inequities by appropriating existing Merina governmental infrastructure to run their colony This legacy of political inequity dogged the people of Madagascar after gaining independence in candidates ethnic and regional identities have often served to help or hinder their success in democratic elections Within these two broad ethnic and political groupings the Malagasy were historically subdivided into specifically named ethnic groups who were primarily distinguished from one another on the basis of cultural practices These were namely agricultural hunting or fishing practices construction style of dwellings music hair and clothing styles and local customs or taboos the latter known in the Malagasy language as fady citation needed The number of such ethnic groups in Madagascar has been debated The practices that distinguished many of these groups are less prevalent in the st century than they were in the past But many Malagasy are proud to proclaim their association with one or several of these groups as part of their own cultural identity "Highlander" ethnic groups Merina Sihanaka Betsileo Zafimaniry Coastal ethnic groups Antaifasy or Antefasy Antaimoro or Temoro or Antemoro Antaisaka or Antesaka Antambahoaka Antandroy or Tandroy Antankarana Antanosy or Tanosy Academia edit Afifi al Akiti Khasnor Johan historian Khoo Kay Kim Jomo Kwame Sundaram Danny Quah Harith Ahmad Architects edit Main article List of Malaysian architects Artists edit Main article List of Malaysian artists Business edit Tan Sri Syed Mokhtar Al Bukhary born Tan Sri Dato Loh Boon Siew – Tan Sri Jeffrey Cheah Tan Sri William Cheng Dato Choong Chin Liang born Tan Sri Dato Tony Fernandes born Lim Goh Tong – Tan Sri Tiong Hiew King Tan Sri Teh Hong Piow born Chung Keng Quee – Tan Sri Ananda Krishnan born Robert Kuok born Tan Sri Quek Leng Chan born Shoba Purushothaman Shah Hakim Zain Halim Saad Tan Sri Mohd Saleh Sulong Tan Sri Vincent Tan born Lillian Too born Tan Sri Dr Francis Yeoh Tun Daim Zainuddin born Tan Sri Kong Hon Kong Designers edit Bernard Chandran fashion designer Jimmy Choo born shoe designer Poesy Liang born artist writer philanthropist jewellery designer industrial designer interior architect music composer Inventors edit Yi Ren Ng inventor of the Lytro Entertainers edit Yasmin Ahmad – film director Stacy Angie Francissca Peter born Jamal Abdillah born Sudirman Arshad – Loganathan Arumugam died Datuk David Arumugam Alleycats Awal Ashaari Alvin Anthons born Asmawi bin Ani born Ahmad Azhar born Ning Baizura born Kasma Booty died Marion Caunter host of One In A Million and the TV Quickie Ella born Erra Fazira born Sean Ghazi born Fauziah Latiff born Angelica Lee born Daniel Lee Chee Hun born Fish Leong born Sheila Majid born Amy Mastura born Mohamad Nasir Mohamad born Shathiyah Kristian born Meor Aziddin Yusof born Ah Niu born Dayang Nurfaizah born Shanon Shah born Siti Nurhaliza born Misha Omar born Hani Mohsin – Aziz M Osman born Azmyl Yunor born P Ramlee born Aziz Sattar born Fasha Sandha born Ku Nazhatul Shima Ku Kamarazzaman born Nicholas Teo born Pete Teo Penny Tai born Hannah Tan born Jaclyn Victor born Chef Wan Adira Suhaimi Michael Wong born Victor Wong born Dato Michelle Yeoh Hollywood actress born James Wan director of Hollywood films like several Saw films Insidious The Conjuring Fast and Furious born Ziana Zain born Zee Avi Shila Amzah Yunalis Zarai Zamil Idris born Military edit Leftenan Adnan – Warrior from mainland Malaya Antanum Warrior from Sabah Borneo Rentap Warrior from Sarawak Syarif Masahor Warrior from Sarawak Monsopiad Warrior from Sabah Borneo Haji Abdul Rahman Limbong Warrior from Telemong Terengganu Mat Salleh Warrior from Sabah Borneo Rosli Dhobi Warrior from Sarawak Politicians edit Parameswara founder of Sultanate of Malacca Tunku Abdul Rahman Putra Al Haj st Prime Minister of independent Malaya Tun Abdul Razak nd Prime Minister V T Sambanthan Founding Fathers of Malaysia along with Tunku Abdul Rahman and Tan Cheng Lock Tun Dato Sir Tan Cheng Lock Founder of MCA Tun Hussein Onn rd Prime Minister Mahathir Mohammad th Prime Minister Father of Modernisation Abdullah Ahmad Badawi th Prime Minister since Najib Tun Razak Current Prime Minister since Dato Seri Ong Ka Ting Dato Seri Anwar Ibrahim Dato Wan Hisham Wan Salleh Nik Aziz Nik Mat Raja Nong Chik Zainal Abidin Federal Territory and Urban Wellbeing Minister Wan Azizah Wan Ismail Karpal Singh Lim Kit Siang Lim Guan Eng Tengku Razaleigh Hamzah Religious edit Antony Selvanayagam Roman Catholic Bishop of the Diocese of Penang Anthony Soter Fernandez Archbishop Emeritus of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Kuala Lumpur and Bishop Emeritus of the Diocese of Penang Gregory Yong – Second Roman Catholic Archbishop of Singapore Tan Sri Datuk Murphy Nicholas Xavier Pakiam Metropolitan archbishop of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Kuala Lumpur president of the Catholic Bishops Conference of Malaysia Singapore and Brunei and publisher of the Catholic weekly newspaper The Herald Datuk Ng Moon Hing the fourth and current Anglican Bishop of West Malaysia Sportspeople edit Squash edit Datuk Nicol Ann David Ong Beng Hee Azlan Iskandar Low Wee Wern Badminton edit Chan Chong Ming men s doubles Dato Lee Chong Wei Chew Choon Eng men s doubles Wong Choong Hann Chin Eei Hui women s doubles Hafiz Hashim Roslin Hashim Wong Pei Tty women s doubles Choong Tan Fook men s doubles Lee Wan Wah men s doubles Koo Kien Keat men s doubles Tan Boon Heong men s doubles Retired edit Tan Aik Huang Eddy Choong Punch Gunalan Yap Kim Hock Foo Kok Keong Jalani Sidek Misbun Sidek Rashid Sidek Razif Sidek Cheah Soon Kit Lee Wan Wah Football soccer edit Brendan Gan Sydney FC Shaun Maloney Wigan Athletic Akmal Rizal Perak FA Kedah FA RC Strasbourg FCSR Haguenau Norshahrul Idlan Talaha Kelantan FA Khairul Fahmi Che Mat Kelantan FA Mohd Safiq Rahim Selangor FA Mohd Fadzli Saari Selangor FA PBDKT T Team FC SV Wehen Rudie Ramli Selangor FA PKNS F C SV Wehen Mohd Safee Mohd Sali Selangor FA Pelita Jaya Baddrol Bakhtiar Kedah FA Mohd Khyril Muhymeen Zambri Kedah FA Mohd Azmi Muslim Kedah FA Mohd Fadhli Mohd Shas Harimau Muda A FC ViOn Zlaté Moravce Mohd Irfan Fazail Harimau Muda A FC ViOn Zlaté Moravce Wan Zack Haikal Wan Noor Harimau Muda A FC ViOn Zlaté Moravce F C Ryukyu Nazirul Naim Che Hashim Harimau Muda A F C Ryukyu Khairul Izuan Abdullah Sarawak FA Persibo Bojonegoro PDRM FA Stanley Bernard Stephen Samuel Sabah FA Sporting Clube de Goa Nazmi Faiz Harimau Muda A SC Beira Mar Ahmad Fakri Saarani Perlis FA Atlético S C Chun Keng Hong Penang FA Chanthaburi F C Retired edit Serbegeth Singh owner founder of MyTeam Blackburn Rovers F C Global dvisor Mokhtar Dahari former Selangor FA and Malaysian player Lim Teong Kim former Hertha BSC player