loading debonding may occur at different locations in the adhesive joint The major fracture types are the following Cohesive fracture edit Cohesive fracture is obtained if a crack propagates in the bulk polymer which constitutes the adhesive In this case the surfaces of both adherends after debonding will be covered by fractured adhesive The crack may propagate in the center of the layer or near an interface For this last case the cohesive fracture can be said to be “cohesive near the interface” Adhesive fracture edit Adhesive fracture sometimes referred to as interfacial fracture is when debonding occurs between the adhesive and the adherend In most cases the occurrence of adhesive fracture for a given adhesive goes along with smaller fracture toughness Other types of fracture edit Other types of fracture include Wood is a porous and fibrous structural tissue found in the stems and roots of trees and other woody plants It has been used for thousands of years for both fuel and as a construction material It is an organic material a natural composite of cellulose fibers which are strong in tension embedded in a matrix of lignin which resists compression Wood is sometimes defined as only the secondary xylem in the stems of trees or it is defined more broadly to include the same type of tissue elsewhere such as in the roots of trees or shrubs citation needed In a living tree it performs a support function enabling woody plants to grow large or to stand up by themselves It also conveys water and nutrients between the leaves other growing tissues and the roots Wood may also refer to other plant materials with comparable properties and to material engineered from wood or wood chips or fiber

The Earth contains about billion cubic meters of growing stock forest of which is commercial As an abundant carbon neutral renewable resource woody materials have been of intense interest as a source of renewable energy In approximately cubic kilometers of wood were harvested Dominant uses were for furniture and building construction Contents hide History Physical properties Growth rings Knots Heartwood and sapwood Color Water content Structure Earlywood and latewood In softwood In ring porous woods In diffuse porous woods Monocot wood Specific gravity Wood density Hard and soft woods Chemistry of wood Extractives Uses Fuel Construction Wood flooring Engineered wood Furniture and utensils Next generation wood products In the arts Sports and recreational equipment Bacterial degradation See also References Footnotes History edit A discovery in the Canadian province of New Brunswick uncovered the earliest known plants to have grown wood approximately to million years ago Wood can be dated by carbon dating and in some species by dendrochronology to make inferences about when a wooden object was created People have used wood for millennia for many purposes primarily as a fuel or as a construction material for making houses tools weapons furniture packaging artworks and paper The year to year variation in tree ring widths and isotopic abundances gives clues to the prevailing climate at that time Physical properties edit Diagram of secondary growth in a tree showing idealised vertical and horizontal sections A new layer of wood is added in each growing season thickening the stem existing branches and roots to form a growth ring Growth rings edit Main article Growth rings Wood in the strict sense is yielded by trees which increase in diameter by the formation between the existing wood and the inner bark of new woody layers which envelop the entire stem living branches and roots This process is known as secondary growth it is the result of cell division in the vascular cambium a lateral meristem and subsequent expansion of the new cells Where there are clear seasons growth can occur in a discrete annual or seasonal pattern leading to growth rings these can usually be most clearly seen on the end of a log but are also visible on the other surfaces If these seasons are annual these growth rings are referred to as annual rings Where there is no seasonal difference growth rings are likely to be indistinct or absent If there are differences within a growth ring then the part of a growth ring nearest the center of the tree and formed early in the growing season when growth is rapid is usually composed of wider elements It is usually lighter in color than that near the outer portion of the ring and is known as earlywood or springwood The outer portion formed later in the season is then known as the latewood or summerwood However there are major differences depending on the kind of wood see below Knots edit A knot on a tree at the Garden of the Gods public park in Colorado Springs Colorado October A knot is a particular type of imperfection in a piece of wood it will affect the technical properties of the wood usually reducing the local strength and increasing the tendency for splitting along the wood grain but may be exploited for visual effect In a longitudinally sawn plank a knot will appear as a roughly circular "solid" usually darker piece of wood around which the grain of the rest of the wood "flows" parts and rejoins Within a knot the direction of the wood grain direction is up to degrees different from the grain direction of the regular wood In the tree a knot is either the base of a side branch or a dormant bud A knot when the base of a side branch is conical in shape hence the roughly circular cross section with the inner tip at the point in stem diameter at which the plant's vascular cambium was located when the branch formed as a bud During the development of a tree the lower limbs often die but may remain attached for a time sometimes years Subsequent layers of growth of the attaching stem are no longer intimately joined with the dead limb but are grown around it Hence dead branches produce knots which are not attached and likely to drop out after the tree has been sawn into boards In grading lumber and structural timber knots are classified according to their form size soundness and the firmness with which they are held in place This firmness is affected by among other factors the length of time for which the branch was dead while the attaching stem continued to grow Wood knot in vertical section Knots materially affect cracking and warping ease in working and cleavability of timber They are defects which weaken timber and lower its value for structural purposes where strength is an important consideration The weakening effect is much more serious when timber is subjected to forces perpendicular to the grain and or tension than where under load along the grain and or compression The extent to which knots affect the strength of a beam depends upon their position size number and condition A knot on the upper side is compressed while one on the lower side is subjected to tension If there is a season check in the knot as is often the case it will offer little resistance to this tensile stress Small knots however may be located along the neutral plane of a beam and increase the strength by preventing longitudinal shearing Knots in a board or plank are least injurious when they extend through it at right angles to its broadest surface Knots which occur near the ends of a beam do not weaken it Sound knots which occur in the central portion one fourth the height of the beam from either edge are not serious defects —?Samuel J Record The Mechanical Properties of Wood Knots do not necessarily influence the stiffness of structural timber this will depend on the size and location Stiffness and elastic strength are more dependent upon the sound wood than upon localized defects The breaking strength is very susceptible to defects Sound knots do not weaken wood when subject to compression parallel to the grain In some decorative applications wood with knots may be desirable to add visual interest In applications where wood is painted such as skirting boards fascia boards door frames and furniture resins present in the timber may continue to 'bleed' through to the surface of a knot for months or even years after manufacture and show as a yellow or brownish stain A knot primer paint or solution correctly applied during preparation may do much to reduce this problem but it is difficult to control completely especially when using mass produced kiln dried timber stocks Heartwood and sapwood edit A section of a Yew branch showing annual growth rings pale sapwood dark heartwood and pith center dark spot The dark radial lines are small knots Heartwood or duramen is wood that as a result of a naturally occurring chemical transformation has become more resistant to decay Heartwood formation occurs spontaneously it is a genetically programmed process Once heartwood formation is complete the heartwood is dead Some uncertainty still exists as to whether heartwood is truly dead as it can still chemically react to decay organisms but only once Heartwood is often visually distinct from the living sapwood and can be distinguished in a cross section where the boundary will tend to follow the growth rings For example it is sometimes much darker However other processes such as decay or insect invasion can also discolor wood even in woody plants that do not form heartwood which may lead to confusion Sapwood or alburnum is the younger outermost wood in the growing tree it is living wood and its principal functions are to conduct water from the roots to the leaves and to store up and give back according to the season the reserves prepared in the leaves However by the time they become competent to conduct water all xylem tracheids and vessels have lost their cytoplasm and the cells are therefore functionally dead All wood in a tree is first formed as sapwood The more leaves a tree bears and the more vigorous its growth the larger the volume of sapwood required Hence trees making rapid growth in the open have thicker sapwood for their size than trees of the same species growing in dense forests Sometimes trees of species that do form heartwood grown in the open may become of considerable size cm or more in diameter before any heartwood begins to form for example in second growth hickory or open grown pines The term heartwood derives solely from its position and not from any vital importance to the tree This is evidenced by the fact that a tree can thrive with its heart completely decayed Some species begin to form heartwood very early in life so having only a thin layer of live sapwood while in others the change comes slowly Thin sapwood is characteristic of such species as chestnut black locust mulberry osage orange and sassafras while in maple ash hickory hackberry beech and pine thick sapwood is the rule Others never form heartwood No definite relation exists between the annual rings of growth and the amount of sapwood Within the same species the cross sectional area of the sapwood is very roughly proportional to the size of the crown of the tree If the rings are narrow more of them are required than where they are wide As the tree gets larger the sapwood must necessarily become thinner or increase materially in volume Sapwood is thicker in the upper portion of the trunk of a tree than near the base because the age and the diameter of the upper sections are less When a tree is very young it is covered with limbs almost if not entirely to the ground but as it grows older some or all of them will eventually die and are either broken off or fall off Subsequent growth of wood may completely conceal the stubs which will however remain as knots No matter how smooth and clear a log is on the outside it is more or less knotty near the middle Consequently the sapwood of an old tree and particularly of a forest grown tree will be freer from knots than the inner heartwood Since in most uses of wood knots are defects that weaken the timber and interfere with its ease of working and other properties it follows that a given piece of sapwood because of its position in the tree may well be stronger than a piece of heartwood from the same tree It is remarkable that the inner heartwood of old trees remains as sound as it usually does since in many cases it is hundreds and in a few instances thousands of years old Every broken limb or root or deep wound from fire insects or falling timber may afford an entrance for decay which once started may penetrate to all parts of the trunk The larvae of many insects bore into the trees and their tunnels remain indefinitely as sources of weakness Whatever advantages however that sapwood may have in this connection are due solely to its relative age and position If a tree grows all its life in the open and the conditions of soil and site remain unchanged it will make its most rapid growth in youth and gradually decline The annual rings of growth are for many years quite wide but later they become narrower and narrower Since each succeeding ring is laid down on the outside of the wood previously formed it follows that unless a tree materially increases its production of wood from year to year the rings must necessarily become thinner as the trunk gets wider As a tree reaches maturity its crown becomes more open and the annual wood production is lessened thereby reducing still more the width of the growth rings In the case of forest grown trees so much depends upon the competition of the trees in their struggle for light and nourishment that periods of rapid and slow growth may alternate Some trees such as southern oaks maintain the same width of ring for hundreds of years Upon the whole however as a tree gets larger in diameter the width of the growth rings decreases Different pieces of wood cut from a large tree may differ decidedly particularly if the tree is big and mature In some trees the wood laid on late in the life of a tree is softer lighter weaker and more even textured than that produced earlier but in other trees the reverse applies This may or may not correspond to heartwood and sapwood In a large log the sapwood because of the time in the life of the tree when it was grown may be inferior in hardness strength and toughness to equally sound heartwood from the same log In a smaller tree the reverse may be true Color edit The wood of Coast Redwood is distinctively red In species which show a distinct difference between heartwood and sapwood the natural color of heartwood is usually darker than that of the sapwood and very frequently the contrast is conspicuous see section of yew log above This is produced by deposits in the heartwood of chemical substances so that a dramatic color difference does not mean a dramatic difference in the mechanical properties of heartwood and sapwood although there may be a dramatic chemical difference Some experiments on very resinous Longleaf Pine specimens indicate an increase in strength due to the resin which increases the strength when dry Such resin saturated heartwood is called "fat lighter" Structures built of fat lighter are almost impervious to rot and termites however they are very flammable Stumps of old longleaf pines are often dug split into small pieces and sold as kindling for fires Stumps thus dug may actually remain a century or more since being cut Spruce impregnated with crude resin and dried is also greatly increased in strength thereby Since the latewood of a growth ring is usually darker in color than the earlywood this fact may be used in judging the density and therefore the hardness and strength of the material This is particularly the case with coniferous woods In ring porous woods the vessels of the early wood not infrequently appear on a finished surface as darker than the denser latewood though on cross sections of heartwood the reverse is commonly true Except in the manner just stated the color of wood is no indication of strength Abnormal discoloration of wood often denotes a diseased condition indicating unsoundness The black check in western hemlock is the result of insect attacks The reddish brown streaks so common in hickory and certain other woods are mostly the result of injury by birds The discoloration is merely an indication of an injury and in all probability does not of itself affect the properties of the wood Certain rot producing fungi impart to wood characteristic colors which thus become symptomatic of weakness however an attractive effect known as spalting produced by this process is often considered a desirable characteristic Ordinary sap staining is due to fungal growth but does not necessarily produce a weakening effect Water content edit Water occurs in living wood in three conditions namely in the cell walls in the protoplasmic contents of the cells and as free water in the cell cavities and spaces In heartwood it occurs only in the first and last forms Wood that is thoroughly air dried retains – of the water in the cell walls and none or practically none in the other forms Even oven dried wood retains a small percentage of moisture but for all except chemical purposes may be considered absolutely dry The general effect of the water content upon the wood substance is to render it softer and more pliable A similar effect of common observation is in the softening action of water on rawhide paper or cloth Within certain limits the greater the water content the greater its softening effect Drying produces a decided increase in the strength of wood particularly in small specimens An extreme example is the case of a completely dry spruce block cm in section which will sustain a permanent load four times as great as a green undried block of the same size will The greatest strength increase due to drying is in the ultimate crushing strength and strength at elastic limit in endwise compression these are followed by the modulus of rupture and stress at elastic limit in cross bending while the modulus of elasticity is least affected Structure edit Wood is a heterogeneous hygroscopic cellular and anisotropic material It consists of cells and the cell walls are composed of micro fibrils of cellulose – and hemicellulose – impregnated with lignin – Sections of tree trunk In coniferous or softwood species the wood cells are mostly of one kind tracheids and as a result the material is much more uniform in structure than that of most hardwoods There are no vessels "pores" in coniferous wood such as one sees so prominently in oak and ash for example The structure of hardwoods is more complex The water conducting capability is mostly taken care of by vessels in some cases oak chestnut ash these are quite large and distinct in others buckeye poplar willow too small to be seen without a hand lens In discussing such woods it is customary to divide them into two large classes ring porous and diffuse porous In ring porous species such as ash black locust catalpa chestnut elm hickory mulberry and oak the larger vessels or pores as cross sections of vessels are called are localised in the part of the growth ring formed in spring thus forming a region of more or less open and porous tissue The rest of the ring produced in summer is made up of smaller vessels and a much greater proportion of wood fibers These fibers are the elements which give strength and toughness to wood while the vessels are a source of weakness citation needed Magnified cross section of Black Walnut showing the vessels rays white lines and annual rings this is intermediate between diffuse porous and ring porous with vessel size declining gradually In diffuse porous woods the pores are evenly sized so that the water conducting capability is scattered throughout the growth ring instead of being collected in a band or row Examples of this kind of wood are alder basswood citation needed birch buckeye maple willow and the Populus species such as aspen cottonwood and poplar Some species such as walnut and cherry are on the border between the two classes forming an intermediate group citation needed Earlywood and latewood edit In softwood edit Earlywood and latewood in a softwood radial view growth rings closely spaced in Rocky Mountain Douglas fir In temperate softwoods there often is a marked difference between latewood and earlywood The latewood will be denser than that formed early in the season When examined under a microscope the cells of dense latewood are seen to be very thick walled and with very small cell cavities while those formed first in the season have thin walls and large cell cavities The strength is in the walls not the cavities Hence the greater the proportion of latewood the greater the density and strength In choosing a piece of pine where strength or stiffness is the important consideration the principal thing to observe is the comparative amounts of earlywood and latewood The width of ring is not nearly so important as the proportion and nature of the latewood in the ring If a heavy piece of pine is compared with a lightweight piece it will be seen at once that the heavier one contains a larger proportion of latewood than the other and is therefore showing more clearly demarcated growth rings In white pines there is not much contrast between the different parts of the ring and as a result the wood is very uniform in texture and is easy to work In hard pines on the other hand the latewood is very dense and is deep colored presenting a very decided contrast to the soft straw colored earlywood It is not only the proportion of latewood but also its quality that counts In specimens that show a very large proportion of latewood it may be noticeably more porous and weigh considerably less than the latewood in pieces that contain but little One can judge comparative density and therefore to some extent strength by visual inspection No satisfactory explanation can as yet be given for the exact mechanisms determining the formation of earlywood and latewood Several factors may be involved In conifers at least rate of growth alone does not determine the proportion of the two portions of the ring for in some cases the wood of slow growth is very hard and heavy while in others the opposite is true The quality of the site where the tree grows undoubtedly affects the character of the wood formed though it is not possible to formulate a rule governing it In general however it may be said that where strength or ease of working is essential woods of moderate to slow growth should be chosen In ring porous woods edit Earlywood and latewood in a ring porous wood ash in a Fraxinus excelsior tangential view wide growth rings In ring porous woods each season's growth is always well defined because the large pores formed early in the season abut on the denser tissue of the year before In the case of the ring porous hardwoods there seems to exist a pretty definite relation between the rate of growth of timber and its properties This may be briefly summed up in the general statement that the more rapid the growth or the wider the rings of growth the heavier harder stronger and stiffer the wood This it must be remembered applies only to ring porous woods such as oak ash hickory and others of the same group and is of course subject to some exceptions and limitations In ring porous woods of good growth it is usually the latewood in which the thick walled strength giving fibers are most abundant As the breadth of ring diminishes this latewood is reduced so that very slow growth produces comparatively light porous wood composed of thin walled vessels and wood parenchyma In good oak these large vessels of the earlywood occupy from to percent of the volume of the log while in inferior material they may make up or more The latewood of good oak is dark colored and firm and consists mostly of thick walled fibers which form one half or more of the wood In inferior oak this latewood is much reduced both in quantity and quality Such variation is very largely the result of rate of growth Wide ringed wood is often called "second growth" because the growth of the young timber in open stands after the old trees have been removed is more rapid than in trees in a closed forest and in the manufacture of articles where strength is an important consideration such "second growth" hardwood material is preferred This is particularly the case in the choice of hickory for handles and spokes Here not only strength but toughness and resilience are important The results of a series of tests on hickory by the U S Forest Service show that "The work or shock resisting ability is greatest in wide ringed wood that has from to rings per inch rings mm thick is fairly constant from to rings per inch rings – mm thick and decreases rapidly from to rings per inch rings – mm thick The strength at maximum load is not so great with the most rapid growing wood it is maximum with from to rings per inch rings – mm thick and again becomes less as the wood becomes more closely ringed The natural deduction is that wood of first class mechanical value shows from to rings per inch rings – mm thick and that slower growth yields poorer stock Thus the inspector or buyer of hickory should discriminate against timber that has more than rings per inch rings less than mm thick Exceptions exist however in the case of normal growth upon dry situations in which the slow growing material may be strong and tough " The effect of rate of growth on the qualities of chestnut wood is summarized by the same authority as follows "When the rings are wide the transition from spring wood to summer wood is gradual while in the narrow rings the spring wood passes into summer wood abruptly The width of the spring wood changes but little with the width of the annual ring so that the narrowing or broadening of the annual ring is always at the expense of the summer wood The narrow vessels of the summer wood make it richer in wood substance than the spring wood composed of wide vessels Therefore rapid growing specimens with wide rings have more wood substance than slow growing trees with narrow rings Since the more the wood substance the greater the weight and the greater the weight the stronger the wood chestnuts with wide rings must have stronger wood than chestnuts with narrow rings This agrees with the accepted view that sprouts which always have wide rings yield better and stronger wood than seedling chestnuts which grow more slowly in diameter " In diffuse porous woods edit In the diffuse porous woods the demarcation between rings is not always so clear and in some cases is almost if not entirely invisible to the unaided eye Conversely when there is a clear demarcation there may not be a noticeable difference in structure within the growth ring In diffuse porous woods as has been stated the vessels or pores are even sized so that the water conducting capability is scattered throughout the ring instead of collected in the earlywood The effect of rate of growth is therefore not the same as in the ring porous woods approaching more nearly the conditions in the conifers In general it may be stated that such woods of medium growth afford stronger material than when very rapidly or very slowly grown In many uses of wood total strength is not the main consideration If ease of working is prized wood should be chosen with regard to its uniformity of texture and straightness of grain which will in most cases occur when there is little contrast between the latewood of one season's growth and the earlywood of the next Monocot wood edit Trunks of the coconut palm a monocot in Java From this perspective these look not much different from trunks of a dicot or conifer Structural material that resembles ordinary "dicot" or conifer wood in its gross handling characteristics is produced by a number of monocot plants and these also are colloquially called wood Of these bamboo botanically a member of the grass family has considerable economic importance larger culms being widely used as a building and construction material in their own right and these days in the manufacture of engineered flooring panels and veneer Another major plant group that produce material that often is called wood are the palms Of much less importance are plants such as Pandanus Dracaena and Cordyline With all this material the structure and composition of the structural material is quite different from ordinary wood Specific gravity edit The single most revealing property of wood as an indicator of wood quality is specific gravity Timell as both pulp yield and lumber strength are determined by it Specific gravity is the ratio of the mass of a substance to the mass of an equal volume of water density is the ratio of a mass of a quantity of a substance to the volume of that quantity and is expressed in mass per unit substance e g grams per millilitre g cm or g ml The terms are essentially equivalent as long as the metric system is used Upon drying wood shrinks and its density increases Minimum values are associated with green water saturated wood and are referred to as basic specific gravity Timell Wood density edit Wood density is determined by multiple growth and physiological factors compounded into “one fairly easily measured wood characteristic” Elliott Age diameter height radial growth geographical location site and growing conditions silvicultural treatment and seed source all to some degree influence wood density Variation is to be expected Within an individual tree the variation in wood density is often as great as or even greater than that between different trees Timell Variation of specific gravity within the bole of a tree can occur in either the horizontal or vertical direction Hard and soft woods edit There is a strong relationship between the properties of wood and the properties of the particular tree that yielded it The density of wood varies with species The density of a wood correlates with its strength mechanical properties For example mahogany is a medium dense hardwood that is excellent for fine furniture crafting whereas balsa is light making it useful for model building One of the densest woods is black ironwood It is common to classify wood as either softwood or hardwood The wood from conifers e g pine is called softwood and the wood from dicotyledons usually broad leaved trees e g oak is called hardwood These names are a bit misleading as hardwoods are not necessarily hard and softwoods are not necessarily soft The well known balsa a hardwood is actually softer than any commercial softwood Conversely some softwoods e g yew are harder than many hardwoods Chemistry of wood edit Chemical structure of lignin which comprises approximately of wood and is responsible for many of its properties The chemical composition of wood varies from species to species but is approximately carbon oxygen hydrogen nitrogen and other elements mainly calcium potassium sodium magnesium iron and manganese by weight Wood also contains sulfur chlorine silicon phosphorus and other elements in small quantity Aside from water wood has three main components Cellulose a crystalline polymer derived from glucose constitutes about – Next in abundance is hemicellulose which is around in deciduous trees but near in conifers It is mainly five carbon sugars that are linked in an irregular manner in contrast to the cellulose Lignin is the third component at around in coniferous wood vs in deciduous trees Lignin confers the hydrophobic properties reflecting the fact that it is based on aromatic rings These three components are interwoven and direct covalent linkages exist between the lignin and the hemicellulose A major focus of the paper industry is the separation of the lignin from the cellulose from which paper is made In chemical terms the difference between hardwood and softwood is reflected in the composition of the constituent lignin Hardwood lignin is primarily derived from sinapyl alcohol and coniferyl alcohol Softwood lignin is mainly derived from coniferyl alcohol Extractives edit Gary Snyder (poet, writer, environmentalist) Smothers Brothers (musicians, TV performers, activists) Owsley Stanley (drug culture chemist) Gloria Steinem (feminist, publisher) Hunter S. Thompson (journalist, author) Kurt Vonnegut (author, pacifist, humanist) Andy Warhol (artist) Leonard Weinglass (attorney) Alan Watts (philosopher) John Lennon & Paul McCartney Eric Clapton Reference works[edit] Bashe, Patricia R.; George-Warren, Holly; Pareles, Jon, eds. (2005) [1983]. The Rolling Stone Encyclopedia of Rock & Roll. New York: Fireside. ISBN 0-7432-9201-4. Brackett, Nathan; Hoard, Christian, eds. (2004) [1979, 1983, 1992]. The New Rolling Stone Album Guide. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-7432-0169-8. Miller, Jim (1980) [1976]. The Rolling Stone Illustrated History of Rock & Roll. New York: Random House. ISBN 0-394-51322-3. Rolling Stone Cover to Cover – the First 40 Years: Searchable Digital Archive-Every Page, Every Issue. Renton, WA: Bondi Digital Pub. 2007. ISBN 978-0-9795261-0-7. Swenson, John (1985). The Rolling Stone Jazz Record Guide. New York: Rolling Stone. ISBN 0-394-72643-X. International editions[edit] Argentina – Published by Publirevistas S. A. since April 1998. This edition also circulates in Bolivia, Paraguay and Uruguay. Australia – Rolling Stone Australia began as a supplement in 1969 in Go-Set magazine. It became a full title in 1972. It was published by Silvertongues from 1974 to 1987 and by Nextmedia Pty Ltd, Sydney until 2008. Notable editors and contributors include Paul and Jane Gardiner, Toby Creswell, Clinton Walker and Kathy Bail. It is now published by Bauer Media Group and is the longest running international edition. Brazil – Published in Brazil since October 2006 by Spring Comunicações. Bulgaria – Published in Bulgaria since November 2009 by Sivir Publications. Ceased publication as of the August/September 2011 issue. Chile – Published by Edu Comunicaciones from May 2003 to December 2005. Published by El Mercurio from January 2006 to December 2011. China – Rolling Stone in mainland China was licensed to One Media Group of Hong Kong and published in partnership with China Record Corporation in 2006. The magazine was in Chinese with translated articles and local content. It halted publication after one year. Croatia – Published since October 2013 - 2015 by S3 Mediji. This edition also circulates in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia and Slovenia. Colombia – Edited in Bogotá for Colombia, Ecuador, Perú, Panama and Venezuela, since 1991. France – Launched 2002. This edition temporarily ceased in 2007 and was relaunched in May 2008 under license with 1633SA publishing group. Germany – Published in Germany since 1994 by Axel Springer AG. India – Launched in March 2008 by MW Com, publishers of Man's World magazine. Indonesia – Published in Indonesia since June 2005 by a&e Media. Italy – Published in Italy since 1980. After ceasing publication in 1982, it was relaunched in November 2003, first by IXO Publishing, and then by Editrice Quadratum until April 2014. The magazine is currently published by Luciano Bernardini de Pace Editore.[73] Japan – Launched in March 2007 by International Luxury Media Co., Ltd. (ILM). Published by atomixmedia Inc. (?????????????? KK atomikkusumedia?) During her grandfather's reign, Elizabeth was third in the line of succession to the throne, behind her uncle Edward, Prince of Wales, and her father, the Duke of York. Although her birth generated public interest, she was not expected to become queen, as the Prince of Wales was still young, and many assumed that he would marry and have children of his own.[15] When her grandfather died in 1936 and her uncle succeeded as Edward VIII, she became second-in-line to the throne, after her father. Later that year Edward abdicated, after his proposed marriage to divorced socialite Wallis Simpson provoked a constitutional crisis.[16] Consequently, Elizabeth's father became king, and she became heir presumptive. If her parents had had a later son, she would have lost her position as first-in-line, as her brother would have been heir apparent and above her in the line of succession.[17] Elizabeth received private tuition in constitutional history from Henry Marten, Vice-Provost of Eton College,[18] and learned French from a succession of native-speaking governesses.[19] A Girl Guides company, the 1st Buckingham Palace Company, was formed specifically so that she could socialise with girls her own age.[20] Later, she was enrolled as a Sea Ranger.[19] In 1939, Elizabeth's parents toured Canada and the United States. As in 1927, when her parents had toured Australia and New Zealand, Elizabeth remained in Britain, since her father thought her too young to undertake public tours.[21] Elizabeth "looked tearful" as her parents departed.[22] They corresponded regularly,[22] and she and her parents made the first royal transatlantic telephone call on 18 May.[21] Second World War In September 1939, Britain entered the Second World War, which lasted until 1945. During the war, many of London's children were evacuated to avoid the frequent aerial bombing. The suggestion by senior politician Lord Hailsham[23] that the two princesses should be evacuated to Canada was rejected by Elizabeth's mother, who declared, "The children won't go without me. I won't leave without the King. And the King will never leave."[24] Princesses Elizabeth and Margaret stayed at Balmoral Castle, Scotland, until Christmas 1939, when they moved to Sandringham House, Norfolk.[25] From February to May 1940, they lived at Royal Lodge, Windsor, until moving to Windsor Castle, where they lived for most of the next five years.[26] At Windsor, the princesses staged pantomimes at Christmas in aid of the Queen's Wool Fund, which bought yarn to knit into military garments.[27] In 1940, the 14-year-old Elizabeth made her first radio broadcast during the BBC's Children's Hour, addressing other children who had been evacuated from the cities.[28] She stated: We are trying to do all we can to help our gallant sailors, soldiers and airmen, and we are trying, too, to bear our share of the danger and sadness of war. We know, every one of us, that in the end all will be well.[28] Elizabeth in Auxiliary Territorial Service uniform, April 1945 Princess Elizabeth (left, in uniform) on the balcony of Buckingham Palace with (left to right) her mother Queen Elizabeth, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, King George VI, and Princess Margaret, 8 May 1945 In 1943, at the age of 16, Elizabeth undertook her first solo public appearance on a visit to the Grenadier Guards, of which she had been appointed colonel the previous year.[29] As she approached her 18th birthday, the law was changed so that she could act as one of five Counsellors of State in the event of her father's incapacity or absence abroad, such as his visit to Italy in July 1944.[30] In February 1945, she joined the Women's Auxiliary Territorial Service as an honorary second subaltern with the service number of 230873.[31] She trained as a driver and mechanic and was promoted to honorary junior commander five months later.[32][33] At the end of the war in Europe, on Victory in Europe Day, Princesses Elizabeth and Margaret mingled anonymously with the celebratory crowds in the streets of London. Elizabeth later said in a rare interview, "We asked my parents if we could go out and see for ourselves. I remember we were terrified of being recognised ... I remember lines of unknown people linking arms and walking down Whitehall, all of us just swept along on a tide of happiness and relief."[34] During the war, plans were drawn up to quell Welsh nationalism by affiliating Elizabeth more closely with Wales. Proposals, such as appointing her Constable of Caernarfon Castle or a patron of Urdd Gobaith Cymru (the Welsh League of Youth), were abandoned for various reasons, which included a fear of associating Elizabeth with conscientious objectors in the Urdd, at a time when Britain was at war.[35] Welsh politicians suggested that she be made Princess of Wales on her 18th birthday. The idea was supported by the Home Secretary, Herbert Morrison, but rejected by the King because he felt such a title belonged solely to the wife of a Prince of Wales and the Prince of Wales had always been the heir apparent.[36] In 1946, she was inducted into the Welsh Gorsedd of Bards at the National Eisteddfod of Wales.[37] In 1947, Princess Elizabeth went on her first overseas tour, accompanying her parents through southern Africa. During the tour, in a broadcast to the British Commonwealth on her 21st birthday, she made the following pledge: I declare before you all that my whole life, whether it be long or short, shall be devoted to your service and the service of our great imperial family to which we all belong.[38] Marriage and family Main article: Wedding of Princess Elizabeth and Philip Mountbatten, Duke of Edinburgh Elizabeth met her future husband, Prince Philip of Greece and Denmark, in 1934 and 1937.[39] They are second cousins once removed through King Christian IX of Denmark and third cousins through Queen Victoria. After another meeting at the Royal Naval College in Dartmouth in July 1939, Elizabeth—though only 13 years old—said she fell in love with Philip and they began to exchange letters.[40] Their engagement was officially announced on 9 July 1947.[41] The engagement was not without controversy: Philip had no financial standing, was foreign-born (though a British subject who had served in the Royal Navy throughout the Second World War), and had sisters who had married German noblemen with Nazi links.[42] Marion Crawford wrote, "Some of the King's advisors did not think him good enough for her. He was a prince without a home or kingdom. Some of the papers played long and loud tunes on the string of Philip's foreign origin."[43] Elizabeth's mother was reported, in later biographies, to have opposed the union initially, even dubbing Philip "The Hun".[44] In later life, however, she told biographer Tim Heald that Philip was "an English gentleman".[45] Before the marriage, Philip renounced his Greek and Danish titles, converted from Greek Orthodoxy to Anglicanism, and adopted the style Lieutenant Philip Mountbatten, taking the surname of his mother's British family.[46] Just before the wedding, he was created Duke of Edinburgh and granted the style His Royal Highness.[47] Elizabeth and Philip were married on 20 November 1947 at Westminster Abbey. They received 2500 wedding gifts from around the world.[48] Because Britain had not yet completely recovered from the devastation of the war, Elizabeth required ration coupons to buy the material for her gown, which was designed by Norman Hartnell.[49] In post-war Britain, it was not acceptable for the Duke of Edinburgh's German relations, including his three surviving sisters, to be invited to the wedding.[50] The Duke of Windsor, formerly King Edward VIII, was not invited either.[51] Elizabeth gave birth to her first child, Prince Charles, on 14 November 1948. One month earlier, the King had issued letters patent allowing her children to use the style and title of a royal prince or princess, to which they otherwise would not have been entitled as their father was no longer a royal prince.[52] A second child, Princess Anne, was born in 1950.[53] Following their wedding, the couple leased Windlesham Moor, near Windsor Castle, until 4 July 1949,[48] when they took up residence at Clarence House in London. At various times between 1949 and 1951, the Duke of Edinburgh was stationed in the British Crown Colony of Malta as a serving Royal Navy officer. He and Elizabeth lived intermittently, for several months at a time, in the hamlet of Gwardamanga, at Villa Guardamangia, the rented home of Philip's uncle, Lord Mountbatten. The children remained in Britain.[54] Reign Accession and coronation Elizabeth in crown and robes next to her husband in military uniform Coronation portrait of Queen Elizabeth II and the Duke of Edinburgh, June 1953 Coronation of Elizabeth II Main article: Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II During 1951, George VI's health declined and Elizabeth frequently stood in for him at public events. When she toured Canada and visited President Harry S. Truman in Washington, D.C., in October 1951, her private secretary, Martin Charteris, carried a draft accession declaration in case the King died while she was on tour.[55] In early 1952, Elizabeth and Philip set out for a tour of Australia and New Zealand by way of Kenya. On 6 February 1952, they had just returned to their Kenyan home, Sagana Lodge, after a night spent at Treetops Hotel, when word arrived of the death of the King and consequently Elizabeth's immediate accession to the throne. Philip broke the news to the new Queen.[56] Martin Charteris asked her to choose a regnal name; she chose to remain Elizabeth, "of course".[57] She was proclaimed queen throughout her realms and the royal party hastily returned to the United Kingdom.[58] She and the Duke of Edinburgh moved into Buckingham Palace.[59] With Elizabeth's accession, it seemed probable that the royal house would bear her husband's name, becoming the House of Mountbatten, in line with the custom of a wife taking her husband's surname on marriage. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and Elizabeth's grandmother, Queen Mary, favoured the retention of the House of Windsor, and so on 9 April 1952 Elizabeth issued a declaration that Windsor would continue to be the name of the royal house. The Duke complained, "I am the only man in the country not allowed to give his name to his own children."[60] In 1960, after the death of Queen Mary in 1953 and the resignation of Churchill in 1955, the surname Mountbatten-Windsor was adopted for Philip and Elizabeth's male-line descendants who do not carry royal titles.[61] Amid preparations for the coronation, Princess Margaret informed her sister that she wished to marry Peter Townsend, a divorcé‚ 16 years Margaret's senior, with two sons from his previous marriage. The Queen asked them to wait for a year; in the words of Martin Charteris, "the Queen was naturally sympathetic towards the Princess, but I think she thought—she hoped—given time, the affair would peter out."[62] Senior politicians were against the match and the Church of England did not permit remarriage after divorce. If Margaret had contracted a civil marriage, she would have been expected to renounce her right of succession.[63] Eventually, she decided to abandon her plans with Townsend.[64] In 1960, she married Antony Armstrong-Jones, who was created Earl of Snowdon the following year. They were divorced in 1978; she did not remarry.[65] Despite the death of Queen Mary on 24 March, the coronation on 2 June 1953 went ahead as planned, as Mary had asked before she died.[66] The ceremony in Westminster Abbey, with the exception of the anointing and communion, was televised for the first time.[67][d] Elizabeth's coronation gown was embroidered on her instructions with the floral emblems of Commonwealth countries:[71] English Tudor rose; Scots thistle; Welsh leek; Irish shamrock; Australian wattle; Canadian maple leaf; New Zealand silver fern; South African protea; lotus flowers for India and Ceylon; and Pakistan's wheat, cotton, and jute.[72] Continuing evolution of the Commonwealth Further information: Historical development of the Commonwealth realms, from the Queen's accession The Commonwealth realms (pink) and their territories and protectorates (red) at the beginning of Elizabeth II's reign A formal group of Elizabeth in tiara and evening dress with eleven politicians in evening dress or national costume. Elizabeth II and Commonwealth leaders at the 1960 Commonwealth Conference, Windsor Castle From Elizabeth's birth onwards, the British Empire continued its transformation into the Commonwealth of Nations.[73] By the time of her accession in 1952, her role as head of multiple independent states was already established.[74] Spanning 1953–54, the Queen and her husband embarked on a six-month around-the-world tour. She became the first reigning monarch of Australia and New Zealand to visit those nations.[75] During the tour, crowds were immense; three-quarters of the population of Australia were estimated to have seen her.[76] Throughout her reign, the Queen has undertaken state visits to foreign countries and tours of Commonwealth ones and she is the most widely travelled head of state.[77] In 1956, French Prime Minister Guy Mollet and British Prime Minister Sir Anthony Eden discussed the possibility of France joining the Commonwealth. The proposal was never accepted and the following year France signed the Treaty of Rome, which established the European Economic Community, the precursor of the European Union.[78] In November 1956, Britain and France invaded Egypt in an ultimately unsuccessful attempt to capture the Suez Canal. Lord Mountbatten claimed the Queen was opposed to the invasion, though Eden denied it. Eden resigned two months later.[79] The absence of a formal mechanism within the Conservative Party for choosing a leader meant that, following Eden's resignation, it fell to the Queen to decide whom to commission to form a government. Eden recommended that she consult Lord Salisbury, the Lord President of the Council. Lord Salisbury and Lord Kilmuir, the Lord Chancellor, consulted the British Cabinet, Winston Churchill, and the Chairman of the backbench 1922 Committee, resulting in the Queen appointing their recommended candidate: Harold Macmillan.[80] The Suez crisis and the choice of Eden's successor led in 1957 to the first major personal criticism of the Queen. In a magazine, which he owned and edited,[81] Lord Altrincham accused her of being "out of touch".[82] Altrincham was denounced by public figures and slapped by a member of the public appalled by his comments.[83] Aleksejs Širovs born – chess player Andris Škele born – politician Prime Minister of Latvia Armands Škele – basketball player Ksenia Solo born – actress Ernests Štalbergs – – architect ensemble of the Freedom Monument Izaks Nahmans Šteinbergs – – politician lawyer and author Maris Štrombergs – BMX cyclist gold medal winner at and Olympics T edit Esther Takeuchi born – materials scientist and chemical engineer Mihails Tals – – the th World Chess Champion Janis Roberts Tilbergs – – painter sculptor U edit Guntis Ulmanis born – president of Latvia Karlis Ulmanis – – prime minister and president of Latvia


abby-lane abby-rode abigail-clayton ada-tauler addie-juniper addison-cain adele-wiesenthal adeline-lange adeline-pollicina adriana-amante adrianna-laurenti adrianna-russo agnes agnes-ardant agnes-zalontai aimee-addison aisha-sun aja aleena-ferari alessandra-schiavo aletta-ocean alexandra-nice alexandria-cass alexa-parks alex-dane alex-foxe alexia-knight alexis-devell alexis-firestone alexis-greco alexis-payne alexis-x alex-storm alex-white aliana-love alice-springs alicia-alighatti alicia-monet alicia-rio alicyn-sterling alighiera-olena ali-moore aline-santos alissa-ashley allysin-chaynes alysin-embers alyssa-love alyssa-reece amanda-addams amanda-blake amanda-blue amanda-jane-adams amanda-rae amanda-stone amanda-tyler amber-hunt amberlina-lynn amber-lynn amber-michaels amber-peach amber-wild amber-woods ambrosia-fox amia-miley ami-rodgers amy-allison amy-brooke amy-rose amy-starz anastasia-christ anastasia-sands andrea-adams andrea-brittian andrea-lange andrea-true andy angel 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carmel-nougat carmen-blonde carmen-de-la-torre carmen-moore carmen-rose carol-connors carol-cross carol-cummings carole-dubois carole-gire carole-pierac carol-titian carolyn-connoly carolyn-monroe carrie-cruise cassandra-leigh cassidy cassie-courtland cataline-bullock catherine-count catherine-crystal catherine-ringer catherine-tailleferre cathy-delorme cathy-menard cathy-stewart celeste-fox celine-gallone chanel-preston chanel-price chantal-virapin chanta-rose chantelle-stevens charisma charisma-cole charlie-latour charlie-waters charlotte-de-castille charmane-star chasey-lain chayse-manhattan chaz-vincent chelsea-sinclaire chennin-blanc cheri-janvier cheri-taylor cherry-hill chessie-moore cheyenne-hunter cheyenne-silver china-lee china-leigh china-moon chloe-cruize chloe-dior chloe-kez chloe-stevens chris-collins chris-jordan chris-petersen chrissie-beauchamp christa-abel christa-ludwig christie-ford christi-lake christina-berg christina-blond christina-evol christina-skye christine-black christine-chavert christine-neona christine-rigoler christy-canyon cicciolina cindi-stephens cindy-carver cindy-crawford cindy-more cindy-shepard cindy-wong cinthya-marinho clair-dia claire-robbins claude-janna claudia-jackson claudia-jamsson claudia-mehringer claudia-nero claudia-van-statt claudia-zante claudine-beccarie clea-carson cleo-nichole cleo-patra cody-lane cody-love cody-nicole coffee-brown colleen-brennan connie-bennett connie-peterson constance-money copper-penny coreena corey-everson corinne-lemoine corneliah cory-everson cory-wolf courtney courtney-cummz courtney-james cris-cassidy crissy-moran cris-taliana crystal-breeze crystal-dawn crystal-holland crystal-knight crystal-lake crystal-lovin crystal-sync csilla-kalnay cuban-bee cynara-fox cyndee-summers cynthia-black cynthia-brooks cynthia-hammers cynthia-lavigne dagmar-lost daisy-layne dallas-miko dana-dylan dana-lynn danica-rhea daniela-nanou daniela-schiffer daniele-troeger daniella daniella-schiffer danielle danielle-foxxx danielle-rodgers danny-ricci danyel-cheeks daphne daphne-rosen darby-lloyd-rains darla-crane darla-delovely davia-ardell dayton-rain debbie-northrup debbie-revenge debbie-van-gils debi-diamond debi-jointed debra-lynn deidra-hopkins deidre-holland delania-raffino delia-moore delphine-thail delta-force delta-white demi-moor denice-klarskov denise-derringer denise-dior denise-sloan desiree-cousteau desiree-foxx desiree-lane desiree-west deva-station devin-devasquez devinn-lane devon-shire dia diana-holt diana-kisabonyi diana-siefert diana-stevenson diane-dubois diane-richards diane-sloan diane-suresne dido-angel dillan-lauren dina-deville dina-jewel dina-pearl ditty-blue diva divinity-love djiana dolly-darkley dominique dominique-dewitt dominique-saint-claire donna-hart donna-marie dorle-buchner dorothy-lemay dorothy-onan drea drimla dru-berrymore dusty-rose dyanna-lauren ebony-ayes edina-blond edita-ungerova edwige-faillel eileen-wells elaine-southern elena-berkova elena-maria-ricci eleonore-melzer elisabeth-bure elis-black elise elise-di-medici elle-devyne elle-rio elodie-delage elsa-maroussia elza-brown emili-doll emily-evermoore emily-george emily-jewel emmanuelle-pareze envy-mi erica-boyer erica-eaton erica-havens erica-idol erica-lauren erika-bella erika-cool erika-heaven erika-lockett esme-monroe eva-allen eva-angel eva-dionisio eva-gross eva-kleber eva-lux eva-uettori eve-laurence evelyne-lang evie-delatosso fabiana-venturi faith-stevens fallon fanny-garreau fanny-steel faye-runaway flame flick-shagwell flore-soller flower france-lomay france-quenie francoise frankie-leigh gabriella gabriella-mirelba gabriella-vincze gail-force gail-palmer gail-sterling georgette-saunders georgia-peach georgina-spelvin gia-givanna gianna-lynn gili-sky gina-carrera gina-gianetti gina-janssen gina-lee gina-martell gina-valentino ginger-jay ginger-lee ginger-lynn ginny-noack giovanna gisela-schwarz giselle-monet gladys-laroche gloria-leonard gloria-todd golden-jade greta-carlson greta-milos guia-lauri-filzi gwenda-farnel hare-krane harley-raine hayley-jade hazel-young heather-deeley heather-ellis heather-hart heather-lere heather-lyn heather-manfield heather-thomas heather-torrance heather-wayne heather-young helen-madigan helen-thomas helga-sven helga-wild hillary-summers holly-hollywood holly-joy holly-page holly-ryder honey-winter hottie-hollie hyapatia-lee ida-fabry ildiko-smits illana-moor ines-ridere ingrid-choray isabella-dior isabella-soprano isabelle-allay isabelle-brell isabelle-marchall isobel-wren iveta ivette-blanche jackie-right jacqueline-lorians jacy-allen jada-stevens jade-east jade-hsu jade-marcela jade-summers jade-wong jahn-gold jamie-brooks jamie-james jamie-summers jana-irrova jana-mrazkova jane-baker jane-darling jane-iwanoff jane-lindsay jane-lixx janet-jacme janey-robbins jasmine-delatori jayden-simone jaylyn-rose jayna-woods jazella-moore jazmin-luna-gold jean-afrique jeanette-littledove 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moxxie-maddron mulani-rivera mysti-may nadege-arnaud nadia-styles nadine-bronx nadine-proutnal nadine-roussial nadi-phuket nanci-suiter nancy-hoffman nancy-vee natacha-delyro natalia-wood natalli-diangelo natascha-throat natasha-skyler naudia-nyce nessa-devil nessy-grant nesty nicki-hunter nicky-reed nicole-berg nicole-bernard nicole-black nicole-grey nicole-london nicole-parks nicole-scott nicole-taylor nicolette-fauludi nicole-west nika-blond nika-mamic niki-cole nikita-love nikita-rush nikki-charm nikki-grand nikki-king nikki-knight nikki-randall nikki-rhodes nikki-santana nikki-steele nikki-wilde niko nina-cherry nina-deponca nina-hartley nina-preta oana-efria obaya-roberts olesja-derevko olga-cabaeva olga-conti olga-pechova olga-petrova olivia-alize olivia-del-rio olivia-flores olivia-la-roche olivia-outre ophelia-tozzi orchidea-keresztes orsolya-blonde paige-turner paisley-hunter pamela-bocchi pamela-jennings pamela-mann pamela-stanford pamela-stealt pandora paola-albini pascale-vital pat-manning pat-rhea patricia-dale patricia-diamond patricia-kennedy patricia-rhomberg patrizia-predan patti-cakes patti-petite paula-brasile paula-harlow paula-morton paula-price paula-winters pauline-teutscher penelope-pumpkins penelope-valentin petra-hermanova petra-lamas peyton-lafferty phaedra-grant pia-snow piper-fawn pipi-anderson porsche-lynn porsha-carrera precious-silver priscillia-lenn purple-passion queeny-love rachel-ashley rachel-love rachel-luv rachel-roxxx rachel-ryan rachel-ryder racquel-darrian rane-revere raven reagan-maddux rebecca-bardoux regan-anthony regine-bardot regula-mertens reina-leone reka-gabor renae-cruz renee-foxx renee-lovins renee-morgan renee-perez renee-summers renee-tiffany rhonda-jo-petty rikki-blake riley-ray rio-mariah rita-ricardo roberta-gemma roberta-pedon robin-byrd robin-cannes robin-everett robin-sane rochell-starr rosa-lee-kimball rosemarie roxanne-blaze roxanne-hall roxanne-rollan ruby-richards sabina-k sabre sabrina-chimaera sabrina-dawn sabrina-jade sabrina-johnson sabrina-love-cox sabrina-mastrolorenzi sabrina-rose sabrina-scott sabrina-summers sacha-davril sahara sahara-sands sai-tai-tiger samantha-fox samantha-ryan samantha-sterlyng samantha-strong samueline-de-la-rosa sandra-cardinale sandra-de-marco sandra-kalermen sandra-russo sandy-lee sandy-pinney sandy-reed sandy-samuel sandy-style sandy-summers sara-brandy-canyon sara-faye sarah-bernard sarah-cabrera sarah-hevyn sarah-mills sarah-shine sara-sloane sasha sasha-hollander sasha-ligaya sasha-rose satine-phoenix satin-summer savannah-stern savanna-jane scarlet-scarleau scarlet-windsor seka selena serena serena-south severine-amoux shana-evans shanna-mccullough shannon-kelly shannon-rush shantell-day sharon-da-vale sharon-kane sharon-mitchell shaun-michelle shawna-sexton shawnee-cates shay-hendrix shayne-ryder sheena-horne sheer-delight shelby-star shelby-stevens shelly-berlin shelly-lyons sheri-st-clair sheyla-cats shonna-lynn shyla-foxxx shy-love sierra-sinn sierra-skye sigrun-theil silver-starr silvia-bella silvia-saint silvie-de-lux silvy-taylor simone-west sindee-coxx sindy-lange sindy-shy siobhan-hunter skylar-knight skylar-price skyler-dupree smokie-flame smoking-mary-jane solange-shannon sonya-summers sophia-santi sophie-call sophie-duflot sophie-evans sophie-guers stacey-donovan stacy-lords stacy-moran stacy-nichols stacy-silver stacy-thorn starla-fox starr-wood stefania-bruni stella-virgin stephanie-duvalle stephanie-rage stephanie-renee stevie-taylor summer-knight summer-rose sunny-day sunset-thomas sunshine-seiber susan-hart susanne-brend susan-nero susi-hotkiss suzanne-mcbain suzan-nielsen suzie-bartlett suzie-carina suzi-sparks sweet-nice sweety-pie sybille-rossani sylvia-benedict sylvia-bourdon sylvia-brand sylvia-engelmann syreeta-taylor syren-de-mer syvette szabina-black szilvia-lauren tai-ellis taija-rae taisa-banx talia-james tamara-lee tamara-longley tamara-n-joy tamara-west tami-white tammy tammy-lee tammy-reynolds tania-lorenzo tantala-ray tanya-danielle tanya-fox tanya-foxx tanya-lawson tanya-valis tara-aire tasha-voux tatjana-belousova tatjana-skomorokhova tawnee-lee tawny-pearl tayla-rox taylor-wane teddi-austin teddi-barrett tera-bond tera-heart tera-joy teresa-may teresa-orlowski teri-diver teri-weigel terri-dolan terri-hall tess-ferre tess-newheart thais-vieira tia-cherry tianna tiara tiffany-blake tiffany-clark tiffany-duponte tiffany-rayne tiffany-rousso tiffany-storm tiffany-towers tiffany-tyler tiger-lily tigr timea-vagvoelgyi tina-blair tina-burner tina-evil tina-gabriel tina-loren tina-marie tina-russell tish-ambrose tommi-rose tonisha-mills topsy-curvey tori-secrets tori-sinclair tori-welles tracey-adams traci-lords traci-topps traci-winn tracy-duzit tracy-love tracy-williams tricia-devereaux tricia-yen trinity-loren trisha-rey trista-post trixie-tyler ultramax ursula-gaussmann ursula-moore uschi-karnat valentina valerie-leveau valery-hilton vanessa-chase vanessa-del-rio vanessa-michaels vanessa-ozdanic vanilla-deville velvet-summers veri-knotty veronica-dol veronica-hart veronica-hill veronica-rayne veronica-sage veronika-vanoza via-paxton vicky-lindsay vicky-vicci victoria-evans victoria-gold victoria-knight victoria-luna victoria-paris victoria-slick victoria-zdrok viper virginie-caprice vivian-valentine vivien-martines wendi-white wendy-divine whitney-banks whitney-fears whitney-wonders wonder-tracey wow-nikki xanthia-berstein yasmine-fitzgerald yelena-shieffer yvonne-green zara-whites zsanett-egerhazi zuzie-boobies

Aside from the lignocellulose wood consists of a variety of low molecular weight organic compounds called extractives The wood extractives are fatty acids resin acids waxes and terpenes For example rosin is exuded by conifers as protection from insects The extraction of these organic materials from wood provides tall oil turpentine and rosin Uses edit Fuel edit Main article Wood fuel Wood has a long history of being used as fuel which continues to this day mostly in rural areas of the world Hardwood is preferred over softwood because it creates less smoke and burns longer Adding a woodstove or fireplace to a home is often felt to add ambiance and warmth Construction edit The Saitta House Dyker Heights Brooklyn New York built in is made of and decorated in wood Wood has been an important construction material since humans began building shelters houses and boats Nearly all boats were made out of wood until the late th century and wood remains in common use today in boat construction Elm in particular was used for this purpose as it resisted decay as long as it was kept wet it also served for water pipe before the advent of more modern plumbing Wood to be used for construction work is commonly known as lumber in North America Elsewhere lumber usually refers to felled trees and the word for sawn planks ready for use is timber In Medieval Europe oak was the wood of choice for all wood construction including beams walls doors and floors Today a wider variety of woods is used solid wood doors are often made from poplar small knotted pine and Douglas fir The churches of Kizhi Russia are among a handful of World Heritage Sites built entirely of wood without metal joints See Kizhi Pogost for more details New domestic housing in many parts of the world today is commonly made from timber framed construction Engineered wood products are becoming a bigger part of the construction industry They may be used in both residential and commercial buildings as structural and aesthetic materials In buildings made of other materials wood will still be found as a supporting material especially in roof construction in interior doors and their frames and as exterior cladding Wood is also commonly used as shuttering material to form the mould into which concrete is poured during reinforced concrete construction Wood flooring edit Wood can be cut into straight planks and made into a wood flooring Carpentry is a skilled trade in which the primary work performed is the cutting shaping and installation of building materials during the construction of buildings ships timber bridges concrete formwork etc Carpenters traditionally worked with natural wood and did the rougher work such as framing but today many other materials are also used and sometimes the finer trades of cabinetmaking and furniture building are considered carpentry Carpentry in the United States is almost always done by men With of carpenters being male it was the fourth most male dominated occupation in the country in and there were about million positions in Carpenters are usually the first tradesmen on a job and the last to leave Carpenters normally framed post and beam buildings until the end of the th century now this old fashioned carpentry is called timber framing Carpenters learn this trade by being employed through an apprenticeship training—normally years—and qualify by successfully completing that country's department of labour competency test in places such as the UK USA and South Africa It is also common that the skill can be learnt by gaining work experience other than a formal training program which may be the case in many places Contents hide Etymology Use of terms in the United Kingdom Use of terms in the United States History Training Carpentry schools and programs Apprenticeships and Journeymen carpenters Master carpenter Materials used Health and safety United States Types and occupations See also References External links Etymology edit The word "carpenter" is the English rendering of the Old French word carpentier later charpentier which is derived from the Latin carpentrius artifex " maker of a carriage The Middle English and Scots word in the sense of "builder" was wright from the Old English wryhta cognate with work which could be used in compound forms such as wheelwright or boatwright Use of terms in the United Kingdom edit In the UK carpentry is more correctly used to describe the skill involved in first fixing of timber items such as construction of roofs floors and timber framed buildings i e those areas of construction that are normally hidden in a finished building An easy way to envisage this is that first fix work is all that is done before plastering takes place Second fix is done after plastering takes place Second fix work the construction of items such as skirting boards architraves and doors also comes under carpentry Carpentry is also used to construct the formwork into which concrete is poured during the building of structures such as roads and highway overpasses In the UK the skill of making timber formwork for poured or in situ concrete is referred to as shuttering Use of terms in the United States edit Carpentry in the United States is historically defined similarly to the United Kingdom as the "heavier and stronger" work distinguished from a joiner " who does lighter and more ornamental work than that of a carpenter " although the " work of a carpenter and joiner are often combined " Joiner is less common than the terms finish carpenter or cabinetmaker The terms housewright and barnwright were used historically now occasionally used by carpenters who work using traditional methods and materials Someone who builds custom concrete formwork is a form carpenter History edit Log church building in Russia reached spectacular heights such as this example from the th century Wood is one of mankind's oldest building materials The ability to shape wood improved with technological advances from the stone age to the bronze age to the iron age Some of the oldest archaeological evidence of carpentry are water well casings built using split oak timbers with mortise and tenon and notched corners excavated in eastern Germany dating from about years ago in the early neolithic period Relatively little information about carpentry is available from pre history before written language or even recent centuries because the knowledge and skills were passed down person to person rarely in writing until the printing press was invented in the th century and builders began regularly publishing guides and pattern books in the th and th centuries The oldest surviving complete architectural text is Vitruvius' ten books collectively titled De architectura which discusses some carpentry Some of the oldest surviving wooden buildings in the world are the temples in China such as the Nanchan Temple built in the year the Greensted Church parts of which are from the th century the stave churchs in Norway from the th and th centuries By the th century sawmills were coming into use in Europe The founding of America was partly based on a desire to extract resources from the new continent including wood for use in ships and buildings in Europe In the th century part of the Industrial Revolution was the invention of the steam engine and cut nails These technologies combined with the invention of the circular saw led to the development of balloon framing which was the beginning of the decline of traditional timber framing The th century saw the development of electrical engineering and distribution which allowed the development of hand held power tools wire nails and machines to mass produce screws In the th century portland cement came into common use and concrete foundations allowed carpenters to do away with heavy timber sills Also drywall came into common use replacing lime plaster on wooden lath Plywood engineered lumber and chemically treated lumber also came into use For types of carpentry used in America see American historic carpentry Training edit The Centre Pompidou Metz museum under construction in Metz France in The building possesses one of the most complex examples of carpentry built to date and is composed of kilometers of glued laminated timber for a surface area of m² Carpentry requires training which involves both acquiring knowledge and physical practice In formal training a carpenter begins as an apprentice then becomes a journeyman and with enough experience and competency can eventually attain the status of a master carpenter Today pre apprenticeship training may be gained through non union vocational programs such as high school shop classes and community colleges Informally a laborer may simply work alongside carpenters for years learning skills by observation and peripheral assistance While such an individual may obtain journeyman status by paying the union entry fee and obtaining a journeyman's card which provides the right to work on a union carpentry crew the carpenter foreman will by necessity dismiss any worker who presents the card but does not demonstrate the expected skill level Carpenters may work for an employer or be self employed No matter what kind of training a carpenter has had some U S states require contractors to be licensed which requires passing a written test and having minimum levels of insurance Carpentry schools and programs edit Formal training in the carpentry trade is available in seminars certificate programs high school programs online classes associate degree programs and advanced college degrees in the new construction restoration and preservation carpentry fields Sometimes these programs are called pre apprenticeship training In the modern British construction industry carpenters are trained through apprenticeship schemes where general certificate of secondary educations GCSE in Mathematics English and Technology help but are not essential However this is deemed the preferred route as young people can earn and gain field experience whilst training towards a nationally recognized qualification There are two main divisions of training construction carpentry and cabinetmaking During pre apprenticeship trainees in each of these divisions spend hours a week for weeks in classrooms and indoor workshops learning mathematics trade terminology and skill in the use of hand and power tools Construction carpentry trainees also participate in calisthenics to prepare for the physical aspect of the work Upon completion of pre apprenticeship trainees who have successfully passed the graded curriculum taught by highly experienced journeyman carpenters are assigned to a local union and to union carpentry crews at work on construction sites or in cabinet shops as First Year Apprentices Over the next four years as they progress in status to Second Year Third Year and Fourth Year Apprentice apprentices periodically return to the training facility every three months for a week of more detailed training in specific aspects of the trade Apprenticeships and Journeymen carpenters edit Tradesmen in countries such as Germany and Australia are required to fulfill a formal apprenticeship usually three to four years to work as a professional carpenter Upon graduation from the apprenticeship he or she is known as a journeyman carpenter Up through the th and even the early th century the journeyman traveled to another region of the country to learn the building styles and techniques of that area before usually returning home In modern times journeymen are not required to travel and the term now refers to a level of proficiency and skill Union carpenters in the United States that is members of the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America are required to pass a skills test to be granted official journeyman status but uncertified professional carpenters may also be known as journeymen based on their skill level years of experience or simply because they support themselves in the trade and not due to any certification or formal woodworking education Professional status as a journeyman carpenter in the United States may be obtained in a number of ways Formal training is acquired in a four year apprenticeship program administered by the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America in which journeyman status is obtained after successful completion of twelve weeks of pre apprenticeship training followed by four years of on the job field training working alongside journeyman carpenters The Timber Framers Guild also has a formal apprenticeship program for traditional timber framing Training is also available in groups like the Kim B?ng woodworking village in Vietnam where apprentices live and work to learn woodworking and carpentry skills In Canada each province sets its own standards for apprenticeship The average length of time is four years and includes a minimum number of hours of both on the job training and technical instruction at a college or other institution Depending on the number of hours of instruction an apprentice receives he or she can earn a Certificate of Proficiency making him or her a journeyman or a Certificate of Qualification which allows him or her to practice a more limited amount of carpentry Canadian carpenters also have the option of acquiring an additional Interprovincial Red Seal that allows them to practice anywhere in Canada The Red Seal requires the completion of an apprenticeship and an additional examination Master carpenter edit After working as a journeyman for a while a carpenter may go on to study or test as a master carpenter In some countries such as Germany and Japan this is an arduous and expensive process requiring extensive knowledge including economic and legal knowledge and skill to achieve master certification these countries generally require master status for anyone employing and teaching apprentices in the craft In others 'master carpenter' can be a loosely used term to describe any skilled carpenter Fully trained carpenters and joiners will often move into related trades such as shop fitting scaffolding bench joinery maintenance and system installation Materials used edit Carpenters traditionally worked with natural wood which has been prepared by splitting riving hewing or sawing with a pit saw or sawmill called lumber American English or timber British English Today natural and engineered lumber and many other building materials carpenters may use are typically prepared by others and delivered to the job site In the carpenters union in America used the term carpenter for a catch all position Tasks performed by union carpenters include installing " flooring windows doors interior trim cabinetry solid surface roofing framing siding flooring insulation acoustical ceilings computer access flooring metal framing wall partitions office furniture systems and both custom or factory produced materials trim and molding ceiling treatments exposed columns and beams displays mantels staircases metal studs metal lath and drywall " Health and safety edit United States edit Carpentry is often hazardous work Types of woodworking and carpentry hazards include Machine hazards flying materials tool projection fire and explosion electrocution noise vibration dust and chemicals In the United States the Occupational Safety and Health Administration OSHA tries to prevent illness injury and fire through regulations However self employed workers are not covered by the OSHA act OSHA claims that "Since workplace fatalities have been reduced by more than percent and occupational injury and illness rates have declined by percent At the same time U S employment has almost doubled " The leading cause of overall fatalities called the "fatal four" are falls followed by struck by object electrocution and caught in between In general construction "employers must provide working conditions that are free of known dangers Keep floors in work areas in a clean and so far as possible a dry condition Select and provide required personal protective equipment at no cost to workers Train workers about job hazards in a language that they can understand " Examples of how to prevent falls includes placing railings and toe boards at any floor opening which cannot be well covered and elevated platforms and safety harness and lines safety nets stair railings and hand rails Safety is not just about the workers on the job site Carpenters work needs to meet the requirements in the Life Safety Code such as in stair building and building codes to promote long term quality and safety for the building occupants Types and occupations edit A finish carpenter North America also called a joiner a traditional name now rare in North America is one who does finish carpentry that is cabinetry furniture making fine woodworking model building instrument making parquetry joinery or other carpentry where exact joints and minimal margins of error are important Some large scale construction may be of an exactitude and artistry that it is classed as finish carpentry A carpenter and joiner is one who has a much broader skill ranging from joinery finishing carpentry building construction and form work A trim carpenter specializes in molding and trim such as door and window casings mantels baseboards and other types of ornamental work Cabinet installers may also be referred to as trim carpenters Historic preservation US heritage preservation or heritage conservation UK is an endeavour that seeks to preserve conserve and protect buildings objects landscapes or other artifacts of historical significance The term tends to refer specifically to the preservation of the built environment and not to preservation of for example primeval forests or wilderness Contents hide History England United States Canada National Register of Historic Places National Historic Landmark Historic districts National Parks UNESCO Influential people Careers Professional organisations See also References Bibliography External links History edit England edit In England antiquarian interests were a familiar gentleman's pursuit since the mid th century developing in tandem with the rise in scientific curiosity Fellows of the Royal Society were often also Fellows of the Society of Antiquaries citation needed John Lubbock MP and a moving force behind the implementation of the first piece of legislation for cultural preservation By the mid th century Britain's unprotected cultural heritage was being slowly destroyed Even well meaning archaeologists like William Greenwell excavated sites with virtually no attempt at their preservation Stonehenge came under increasing threat by the s Tourists were chipping off parts of the stones or carving their initials into the rock The private owners of the monument decided to sell the land to the London and South Western Railway as the monument was "not the slightest use to anyone now" citation needed John Lubbock an MP and botanist emerged as the champion of the country's national heritage In he personally bought private land that housed ancient monuments in Avebury Silbury Hill and elsewhere from the owners who were threatening to have them cleared away to make room for housing Soon he began campaigning in Parliament for legislation to protect monuments from destruction This finally led to the legislative milestone under the Liberal government of William Gladstone of the Ancient Monuments Protection Act The first government appointed inspector for this job was the archaeologist Augustus Pitt Rivers This legislation was regarded by conservative political elements as a grave assault on the individual rights of property of the owner and consequently the inspector only had the power to identify endangered landmarks and offer to purchase them from the owner with his consent The Act only covered ancient monuments and explicitly did not cover historic buildings or structures In the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings was founded by the Arts and Crafts designer William Morris to prevent the destruction of historic buildings followed by the National Trust in that bought estates from their owners for preservation The Ancient Monuments Protection Act had only given legal protection to prehistoric sites such as ancient tumuli The Ancient Monuments Protection Act took this further by empowering the government's Commissioners of Work and local County Councils to protect a wider range of properties Further updates were made in Tattershall Castle preserved at personal expense by Lord Curzon and a catalyst for broader heritage protection laws Tattershall Castle Lincolnshire a medieval manor house had been put up for sale in with its greatest treasures the huge medieval fireplaces still intact However when an American bought the house they were ripped out and packaged up for shipping The former viceroy of India George Curzon st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston was outraged at this cultural destruction and stepped in to buy back the castle and reinstall the fireplaces After a nationwide hunt for them they were finally found in London and returned He restored the castle and left it to the National Trust on his death in His experience at Tattershall influenced Lord Curzon to push for tougher heritage protection laws in Britain which saw passage as the Ancient Monuments Consolidation and Amendment Act The new structure involved the creation of the Ancient Monuments Board to oversee the protection of such monuments Powers were given for the Board with Parliamentary approval to issue preservation orders to protect monuments and extended the public right of access to these The term "monument" was extended to include the lands around it allowing the protection of the wider landscape The National Trust was founded in by Octavia Hill Sir Robert Hunter and Hardwicke Canon Rawnsley as the first organisation of its type in the world Its formal purpose is The preservation for the benefit of the Nation of lands and tenements including buildings of beauty or historic interest and as regards lands for the preservation of their natural aspect features and animal and plant life Also the preservation of furniture pictures and chattels of any description having national and historic or artistic interest In the early days the Trust was concerned primarily with protecting open spaces and a variety of threatened buildings its first property was Alfriston Clergy House and its first nature reserve was Wicken Fen Its first archaeological monument was White Barrow The focus on country houses and gardens which now comprise the majority of its most visited properties came about in the mid th century when it was realised that the private owners of many of these properties were no longer able to afford to maintain them The Town and Country Planning Act and the Town and Country Planning Act took steps toward historic preservation on an unprecedented scale citation needed Concern about the demolition of historic buildings arose in institutions such as the pressure group the Society for the Preservation of Historic Buildings which appealed against demolition and neglect on a case by case basis United States edit See also National Park Service and Antiquities Act Mount Vernon plantation near Alexandria Virginia In the United States one of the first historic preservation efforts was the Washington's Headquarters State Historic Site in Newburgh New York This property has the distinction of being the first ever property designated and operated as a historic site by a U S state having been so since Another early historic preservation undertaking was that of George Washington's Mount Vernon in Founded in the Richmond Virginia based Preservation Virginia formerly known as the Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities was the United States' first statewide historic preservation group Charles E Peterson was an influential figure in the mid th century establishing the Historic American Buildings Survey HABS advising on the establishment of Independence National Historical Park helping with the first graduate degree program in historic preservation in the United States at Columbia University and author The architectural firm of Simons & Lapham Albert Simons and Samuel Lapham was an influential supporter of the nation's first historic preservation ordinance in Charleston South Carolina in affording that city a regulatory means by which to prevent the destruction of its historic building stock In efforts to preserve the historic buildings of the French Quarter in New Orleans led to the creation of the Vieux Carré Commission and later to the adoption of a historic preservation ordinance The preservation of this historic building in Washington D C resulted in an award for Excellence in Historic Preservation by the local government The US National Trust for Historic Preservation another privately funded non profit organization began in with a handful of structures and has developed goals that provide "leadership education advocacy and resources to save America's diverse historic places and revitalize our communities" according to the Trust's mission statement In the Trust assumed responsibility for its first museum property Woodlawn Plantation in northern Virginia Twenty eight sites in all have subsequently become part of the National Trust representing the cultural diversity of American history In New York City the destruction of Pennsylvania Station in shocked many nationwide into supporting preservation On an international level the New York based World Monuments Fund was founded in to preserve historic sites all over the world Under the direction of James Marston Fitch the first advanced degree historic preservation program began at Columbia University in It became the model on which most other graduate historic preservation programs were created Many other programs were to follow before M A in Preservation Planning from Cornell M S in Historic Preservation from the University of Vermont M S in Historic Preservation Studies from Boston University M S in Historic Preservation from Eastern Michigan University and M F A in Historic Preservation was one of the original programs at Savannah College of Art & Design The M Sc in Building Conservation degree program is offered by the School of Architecture at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in Troy New York In Clemson University and the College of Charleston created an M S degree program based in Charleston SC The first undergraduate programs B A appeared in from Goucher College and Roger Williams College followed by Mary Washington College in As of there were more than fifty historic preservation programs offering certificates associate bachelor's and master's degrees in the United States Canada edit Main article Heritage conservation in Canada In Canada the phrase "heritage preservation" is sometimes seen as a specific approach to the treatment of historic places and sites rather than a general concept of conservation "Conservation" is taken as the more general term referring to all actions or processes that are aimed at safeguarding the character defining elements of a cultural resource so as to retain its heritage value and extend its physical life Historic objects in Canada may be granted special designation by any of the three levels of government the central government the provincial governments or a municipal government The Heritage Canada Foundation acts as Canada's lead advocacy organisation for heritage buildings and landscapes National Register of Historic Places edit Main article National Register of Historic Places National Register of Historic Places plaque National Historic Landmark edit Main article National Historic Landmark Historic districts edit Main article Historic district United States A historic district in the United States is a group of buildings properties or sites that have been designated by one of several entities on different levels as historically or architecturally significant Buildings structures objects and sites within a historic district are normally divided into two categories contributing and non contributing Districts greatly vary in size some having hundreds of structures while others have just a few The U S federal government designates historic districts through the U S Department of Interior under the auspices of the National Park Service Federally designated historic districts are listed on the National Register of Historic Places Historic districts allows rural areas to preserve their characters through historic preservation programs These include "Main Street" programs that can be used to redevelop rural downtowns Using historic preservation programs as an economic development tool for local governments in rural areas has enabled some of those areas to take advantage of their history and develop a tourism market that in turn provides funds for maintaining an economic stability that these areas would not have seen otherwise A similar concept exists in the United Kingdom a Conservation area is designated in accordance with the Planning Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas Act in order to protect a zone in which there are buildings of architectural or cultural heritage interest National Parks edit Main article National Park In the English poet William Wordsworth described the Lake District as a sort of national property in which every man has a right and interest who has an eye to perceive and a heart to enjoy It was however the United States that led the world in the creation of National Parks areas of unspoiled natural wilderness where the intrusion of civilization are intentionally minimal citation needed The department of the interior designated several areas of Morristown New Jersey as the first historic park in the United States national park system It became designated as the Morristown National Historical Park The community had permanent settlements that date to is termed the military capital of the American Revolution and contains many designations of sites and locations The park includes three major sites in Morristown In the United Kingdom James Bryce the ambassador to the US praised the system of National Parks and campaigned to have them introduced in Great Britain Little came of it until mounting public pressure during the early th century from the Ramblers' Association and other groups led to the National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act UNESCO edit Landscapes and sites of outstanding universal value can be designated as World Heritage Sites A requirement of such designation is that the designating nation has appropriate legislation in place to preserve them Influential people edit Augustus Pitt Rivers – Britain's first Inspector of Ancient Monuments John Lubbock campaigned for legal protection for ancient monuments and saved Avebury from destruction at the hand of its private owners Eugène Viollet le Duc French architect who restored Gothic buildings and believed that restoration could improve on the past Ann Pamela Cunningham – influential in saving Mount Vernon plantation from demolition and founding the Mount Vernon Ladies' Association one of the first preservation organizations in the United States est William Morris English designer and writer who founded the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings John Ruskin English art critic who established the basic theory of preservation retention of status quo George Curzon British Viceroy of India who preserved Tattershall Castle Lincolnshire and was an influential sponsor of the Ancient Monuments Consolidation and Amendment Act William Sumner Appleton Founder of the Society for the Preservation of New England Antiquities now Historic New England in and widely considered as the U S 's first professional preservationist Charles E Peterson – considered to be the "founding father" of historic preservation in the United States James Marston Fitch educator author critic and design practitioner made a major contribution to the philosophical basis of the modern preservation movement and trained and inspired generations of preservationists William J Murtagh first Keeper of the National Register of Historic Places in the United States and significant contributor to the literature of the discipline Lee H Nelson worked for Charles E Peterson at the National Park Service's Historic American Buildings Survey and helped to formulate national policies on historic preservation Walter Muir Whitehill Chairman of the Whitehill Report in the late s which established the first guidelines for higher education historic preservation programs Richard Nickel American preservationist who save architectural elements from Louis Sullivan buildings Careers edit Although volunteers continue to play a large role in historic preservation activities the field has seen an increased level of professionalization Today there are many career options in historic preservation in the public non profit and private sectors Institutes of secondary education universities colleges etc in the United States offer both certificate and degree A A S B A B F A B S M A M F A M S and PhD programs in historic preservation Some pupils—at schools with such programmes available—choose to enroll in "joint degree" programs earning a degree in historic preservation along with one in another related subject often an MArch MUP or JD degree Possible career fields include The Venice Charter for the Conservation and Restoration of Monuments and Sites is a code of professional standards that gives an international framework for the conservation and restoration of ancient buildings The committee aimed to provide principles to guide the preservation of the historic buildings Contents hide Historic background Athens Charter First International Congress of Architects and Specialists of Historic Buildings Second International Congress of Architects and Specialists of Historic Buildings Text Definitions Aim Conservation Restoration Historic Sites Excavations Publication The Committee Available languages Opinions See also External links References Historic background edit Athens Charter edit The development of new conservation and restoration techniques have threatened the historic buildings in general sense The International Museum Office organized a meeting of specialists about the conservation of historic buildings in The conference resulted with the Athens Charter for the Restoration of Historic Monuments which was consisting of a manifesto with seven points These seven points were to establish organizations for restoration advice to ensure projects are reviewed with knowledgeable criticism to establish national legislation to preserve historic sites to rebury excavations which were not to be restored to allow the use of modern techniques and materials in restoration work to place historical sites under custodial protection to protect the area surrounding historic sites Basically the idea of common world heritage the importance of the setting of monuments and the principle of integration of new materials were highlighted Athens Charter had very progressive suggestions for its period along with its visible influence on the Venice Charter as well as creation of conservation institutions First International Congress of Architects and Specialists of Historic Buildings edit With the concern that listing and safeguarding historic buildings was not enough in architectural specialists arranged a congress by themselves in Paris which was called The First International Congress of Architects and Specialists of Historic Buildings As conclusion the congress published seven recommendations which were the countries which still lack a central organization for the protection of historic buildings provide for the establishment of such an authority the creation of an international assembly of architects and specialists of historic buildings should be considered a specialized professional training of all categories of personnel should be promoted so as to secure highly qualified workmanship and that remuneration should be commensurate with such qualifications the hygrometric problems relating to historic buildings should be discussed in a symposium contemporary artists should be requested to contribute to the decoration of monuments close cooperation should be established among architects and archeologists architects and town planners cooperate so as to secure integration of historic buildings into town planning As the last decision The Congress agreed to have the second meeting in Venice and Mr Piero Gazzola who served as the chairman of the Venice Charter was invited to hold the Venice Congress Second International Congress of Architects and Specialists of Historic Buildings edit In The Second International Congress of Architects and Specialists of Historic Buildings resolutions were adopted of which the first was the Venice Charter and the second was creation of ICOMOS International Council on Monuments and Sites The charter consisted of seven main titles and sixteen articles The concept of historic monuments and sites was interpreted as the common heritage therefore safeguarding them for the future generations with full of richness and authenticity was defined as the common responsibility The following text is the original text agreed on by the representatives of the participating nations mentioned at the end of the Charter Text edit Definitions edit Article The concept of a historic monument embraces not only the single architectural work but also the urban or rural setting in which is found the evidence of a particular civilization a significant development or a historic event This applies not only to great works of art but also to more modest works of the past which have acquired cultural significance with the passing of time Article The conservation and restoration of monuments must have recourse to all the sciences and techniques which can contribute to the study and safeguarding of the architectural heritage Aim edit Article The intention in conserving and restoring monuments is to safeguard them no less as works of art than as historical evidence Conservation edit Article It is essential to the conservation of monuments that they be maintained on a permanent basis Article The conservation of monuments is always facilitated by making use of them for some socially useful purpose Such use is therefore desirable but it must not change the lay out or decoration of the building It is within these limits only that modifications demanded by a change of function should be envisaged and may be permitted Article The conservation of a monument implies preserving a setting which is not out of scale Wherever the traditional setting exists it must be kept No new construction demolition or modification which would alter the relations of mass and color must be allowed Article A monument is inseparable from the history to which it bears witness and from the setting in which it occurs The moving of all or part of a monument cannot be allowed except where the safeguarding of that monument demands it or where it is justified by national or international interest of paramount importance Article Items of sculpture painting or decoration which form an integral part of a monument may only be removed from it if this is the sole means of ensuring their preservation Restoration edit Article The process of restoration is a highly specialized operation Its aim is to preserve and reveal the aesthetic and historic value of the monument and is based on respect for original material and authentic documents It must stop at the point where conjecture begins and in this case moreover any extra work which is indispensable must be distinct from the architectural composition and must bear a contemporary stamp The restoration in any case must be preceded and followed by an archaeological and historical study of the monument Article Where traditional techniques prove inadequate the consolidation of a monument can be achieved by the use of any modern technique for conservation and construction the efficacy of which has been shown by scientific data and proved by experience Article The valid contributions of all periods to the building of a monument must be respected since unity of style is not the aim of a restoration When a building includes the superimposed work of different periods the revealing of the underlying state can only be justified in exceptional circumstances and when what is removed is of little interest and the material which is brought to light is of great historical archaeological or aesthetic value and its state of preservation good enough to justify the action Evaluation of the importance of the elements involved and the decision as to what may be destroyed cannot rest solely on the individual in charge of the work Article Replacements of missing parts must integrate harmoniously with the whole but at the same time must be distinguishable from the original so that restoration does not falsify the artistic or historic evidence Article Additions cannot be allowed except in so far as they do not detract from the interesting parts of the building its traditional setting the balance of its composition and its relation with its surroundings Historic Sites edit Article The sites of monuments must be the object of special care in order to safeguard their integrity and ensure that they are cleared and presented in a seemly manner The work of conservation and restoration carried out in such places should be inspired by the principles set forth in the foregoing articles Excavations edit Article Excavations should be carried out in accordance with scientific standards and the recommendation defining international principles to be applied in the case of archaeological excavation adopted by UNESCO in Ruins must be maintained and measures necessary for the permanent conservation and protection of architectural features and of objects discovered must be taken Furthermore every means must be taken to facilitate the understanding of the monument and to reveal it without ever distorting its meaning All reconstruction work should however be ruled out "a priori " Only anastylosis that is to say the reassembling of existing but dismembered parts can be permitted The material used for integration should always be recognizable and its use should be the least that will ensure the conservation of a monument and the reinstatement of its form Publication edit Article In all works of preservation restoration or excavation there should always be precise documentation in the form of analytical and critical reports illustrated with drawings and photographs Every stage of the work of clearing consolidation rearrangement and integration as well as technical and formal features identified during the course of the work should be included This record should be placed in the archives of a public institution and made available to research workers It is recommended that the report should be published The Committee edit The following persons took part in the work of the Committee for drafting the International Charter for the Conservation and Restoration of Monuments Piero Gazzola Italy Chairman Raymond Lemaire Belgium Reporter Jose Bassegoda Nonell Spain Luis Benavente Portugal Djurdje Boskovic Yugoslavia Hiroshi Daifuku UNESCO P L de Vrieze Netherlands Harald Langberg Denmark Mario Matteucci Italy Jean Merlet France Carlos Flores Marini Mexico Roberto Pane Italy S C J Pavel Czechoslovakia Athens 'æ??nz Modern Greek ????a Athína a'?ina listen Ancient Greek ????a? Athenai is the capital and largest city of Greece Athens dominates the Attica region and is one of the world's oldest cities with its recorded history spanning around years and the earliest human presence around the th– th millennium BC Classical Athens was a powerful city state that emerged in conjunction with the seagoing development of the port of Piraeus A centre for the arts learning and philosophy home of Plato's Academy and Aristotle's Lyceum it is widely referred to as the cradle of Western civilization and the birthplace of democracy largely because of its cultural and political impact on the European continent and in particular the Romans In modern times Athens is a large cosmopolitan metropolis and central to economic financial industrial maritime political and cultural life in Greece In Athens was ranked the world's th richest city by purchasing power and the th most expensive in a UBS study Athens is recognised as a global city because of its geo strategic location and its importance in shipping finance commerce media entertainment arts international trade culture education and tourism It is one of the biggest economic centres in southeastern Europe with a large financial sector and its port Piraeus is the largest passenger port in Europe and the second largest in the world The municipality City of Athens had a population of in in within its administrative limits and a land area of km sq mi The urban area of Athens Greater Athens and Greater Piraeus extends beyond its administrative municipal city limits with a population of in over an area of km sq mi According to Eurostat in the Athens Larger Urban Zone LUZ was the th most populous LUZ in the European Union the th most populous capital city of the EU with a population of Athens is also the southernmost capital on the European mainland The heritage of the classical era is still evident in the city represented by ancient monuments and works of art the most famous of all being the Parthenon considered a key landmark of early Western civilization The city also retains Roman and Byzantine monuments as well as a smaller number of Ottoman monuments Athens is home to two UNESCO World Heritage Sites the Acropolis of Athens and the medieval Daphni Monastery Landmarks of the modern era dating back to the establishment of Athens as the capital of the independent Greek state in include the Hellenic Parliament th century and the Athens Trilogy consisting of the National Library of Greece the Athens University and the Academy of Athens Athens was the host city of the first modern day Olympic Games in and years later it welcomed home the Summer Olympics Athens is home to the National Archeological Museum featuring the world's largest collection of ancient Greek antiquities as well as the new Acropolis Museum Contents hide Etymology History Geography Geology Climate Administration Attica region Municipality City of Athens Cityscape Architecture City of Athens neighbourhoods Urban and suburban municipalities Parks and zoos Economy Demographics Details Culture and contemporary life Archaeological hub Museums Tourism Entertainment and performing arts Sports Music Education Environment Transport Bus transport Athens Metro Electric railway ISAP Commuter suburban rail Proastiakos Tram Athens International Airport Railways and ferry connections Motorways Olympic Games Summer Olympics Summer Olympics Summer Olympics Special Olympics International relations Twin towns – sister cities Other partnerships Other locations named after Athens See also References External links Etymology edit Further information Names of European cities in different languages A Athena patron goddess of Athens National Archaeological Museum In Ancient Greek Athens' name was ????a? Athenai pronounced a t??^? nai? in Classical Attic a plural In earlier Greek such as Homeric Greek the name was in the singular form as ????? Athene and was then rendered in the plural like those of T?ßa? Thebai and ?????a? ?ukenai The root of the word is probably not of Greek or Indo European origin and is a possible remnant of the Pre Greek substrate of Attica as with the name of the goddess Athena Attic ????? Athena Ionic ????? Athene and Doric ????a Athana who was always related to the city of Athens During the medieval period the name of the city was rendered once again in the singular as ????a However because of the conservatism of the written language ????a? a'?ine remained the official name of the city until the abandonment of Katharevousa in the s when ????a became the official name Previously there had been other etymologies by scholars of the th century Lobeck proposed as the root of the name the word ???? athos or ????? anthos meaning flower to denote Athens as the flowering city On the other hand Döderlein proposed the stem of the verb ??? stem ?? thao stem the "to suck" to denote Athens as having fertile soil An etiological myth explaining how Athens has acquired this name was well known among ancient Athenians and even became the theme of the sculpture on the West pediment of the Parthenon The goddess of wisdom Athena and the god of the seas Poseidon had many disagreements and battles between them and one of these was a race to be the Patron God of the city In an attempt to compel the people Poseidon created a salt water spring by striking the ground with his trident symbolizing naval power However when Athena created the olive tree symbolizing peace and prosperity the Athenians under their ruler Cecrops accepted the olive tree and named the city after Athena The city is sometimes referred in Greek as "t? ??e???? ?st?" which means in English the glorious city or simply as "? p??te???sa" protevousa 'the capital' History edit Main article History of Athens See also Timeline of Athens Acropolis of Athens with Odeon of Herodes Atticus seen on bottom left The oldest known human presence in Athens is the Cave of Schist which has been dated to between the th and th millennium BC Athens has been continuously inhabited for at least years By BC the settlement had become an important centre of the Mycenaean civilization and the Acropolis was the site of a major Mycenaean fortress whose remains can be recognised from sections of the characteristic Cyclopean walls Unlike other Mycenaean centers such as Mycenae and Pylos it is not known whether Athens suffered destruction in about BC an event often attributed to a Dorian invasion and the Athenians always maintained that they were "pure" Ionians with no Dorian element However Athens like many other Bronze Age settlements went into economic decline for around years afterwards Statue of Theseus Theseus was responsible according to the myth for the synoikismos "dwelling together" —the political unification of Attica under Athens Iron Age burials in the Kerameikos and other locations are often richly provided for and demonstrate that from BC onwards Athens was one of the leading centres of trade and prosperity in the region The leading position of Athens may well have resulted from its central location in the Greek world its secure stronghold on the Acropolis and its access to the sea which gave it a natural advantage over inland rivals such as Thebes and Sparta Delian League under the leadership of Athens before the Peloponnesian War in BC The Roman era Philopappos Monument By the th century BC widespread social unrest led to the reforms of Solon These would pave the way for the eventual introduction of democracy by Cleisthenes in BC Athens had by this time become a significant naval power with a large fleet and helped the rebellion of the Ionian cities against Persian rule In the ensuing Greco Persian Wars Athens together with Sparta led the coalition of Greek states that would eventually repel the Persians defeating them decisively at Marathon in BC and crucially at Salamis in BC However this did not prevent Athens from being captured and sacked twice by the Persians within one year after a heroic resistance at Thermopylae by Spartans and other Greeks led by King Leonidas after both Boeotia and Attica fell to the Persians The decades that followed became known as the Golden Age of Athenian democracy during which time Athens became the leading city of Ancient Greece with its cultural achievements laying the foundations of Western civilization The playwrights Aeschylus Sophocles and Euripides flourished in Athens during this time as did the historians Herodotus and Thucydides the physician Hippocrates and the philosopher Socrates Guided by Pericles who promoted the arts and fostered democracy Athens embarked on an ambitious building program that saw the construction of the Acropolis of Athens including the Parthenon as well as empire building via the Delian League Originally intended as an association of Greek city states to continue the fight against the Persians the league soon turned into a vehicle for Athens's own imperial ambitions The resulting tensions brought about the Peloponnesian War – BC in which Athens was defeated by its rival Sparta By the mid th century BC the northern Greek kingdom of Macedon was becoming dominant in Athenian affairs In BC the armies of Philip II defeated an alliance of some of the Greek city states including Athens and Thebes at the Battle of Chaeronea effectively ending Athenian independence Later under Rome Athens was given the status of a free city because of its widely admired schools The Roman emperor Hadrian in the nd century AD constructed a library a gymnasium an aqueduct which is still in use several temples and sanctuaries a bridge and financed the completion of the Temple of Olympian Zeus By the end of Late Antiquity the city experienced decline followed by recovery in the second half of the Middle Byzantine Period in the th to th centuries AD and was relatively prosperous during the Crusades benefiting from Italian trade After the Fourth Crusade the Duchy of Athens was established In it was conquered by the Ottoman Empire and entered a long period of decline The Entry of King Otto in Athens Peter von Hess Following the Greek War of Independence and the establishment of the Greek Kingdom Athens was chosen as the capital of the newly independent Greek state in largely because of historical and sentimental reasons At the time it was a town of modest size built around the foot of the Acropolis The first King of Greece Otto of Bavaria commissioned the architects Stamatios Kleanthis and Eduard Schaubert to design a modern city plan fit for the capital of a state The first modern city plan consisted of a triangle defined by the Acropolis the ancient cemetery of Kerameikos and the new palace of the Bavarian king now housing the Greek Parliament so as to highlight the continuity between modern and ancient Athens Neoclassicism the international style of this epoch was the architectural style through which Bavarian French and Greek architects such as Hansen Klenze Boulanger or Kaftantzoglou designed the first important public buildings of the new capital In Athens hosted the first modern Olympic Games During the s a number of Greek 4 19th century 4.1 1800–1859 4.2 1860–1874 4.3 1875–1899 5 20th century 5.1 1900–1924 5.2 1925–1949 5.3 1950–1959 5.4 1960–1969 5.5 1970–2000 6 21st century 7 See also 8 Footnotes 9 Further reading 10 External links 16th century[edit] Main article: Slavery in Colonial United States 1565 The Spanish colony of St. Augustine in Florida became the first permanent European settlement in what would become the US centuries later; it included an unknown number of African slaves. 17th century[edit] 1619 The first record of Africans in English colonial America when men were brought to the Jamestown colony who had been taken as prizes from a Spanish ship. They were treated as indentured servants, and at least one was recorded as eventually owning land in the colony. 1640 John Punch, a black indentured servant, ran away with two white indentured servants, James Gregory and Victor. After the three were captured, Punch was sentenced to serve Virginia planter Hugh Gwyn for life. This made John Punch the first legally documented slave in Virginia (and the US).[1][2][3][4][5] 1654 John Casor, a black man who claimed to have completed his term of indenture, became the first legally recognized slave-for-life in a civil case in the Virginia colony. The court ruled with his master who said he had an indefinite servitude for life.[6] 1662 Virginia law, using the principle of partus sequitur ventrem, said that children in the colony were born into their mother's social status; therefore children born to enslaved mothers were classified as slaves, regardless of their father's race or status. This was contrary to English common law for English subjects, which held that children took their father's social status. 1672 Royal African Company is founded in England, allowing slaves to be shipped from Africa to the colonies in North America and the Caribbean. England entered the slave trade. 1676 Both free and enslaved African Americans fought in Bacon's Rebellion along with English colonists.[7] 18th century[edit] See also: Atlantic slave trade 1705 The Virginia Slave codes define as slaves all those servants brought into the colony who were not Christian in their original countries, as well as those American Indians sold by other Indians to colonists. 1712 April 6 – The New York Slave Revolt of 1712.[8] 1739 September 9 – In the Stono Rebellion, South Carolina slaves gather at the Stono River to plan an armed march for freedom.[9] 1753 Benjamin Banneker designed and built the first clock in the British American colonies. He also created a series of almanacs. He corresponded with Thomas Jefferson and wrote that "blacks were intellectually equal to whites". Banneker worked with Pierre L'Enfant to survey and design a street and urban plan for Washington, D.C.[10] 1760 Jupiter Hammon has a poem printed, becoming the first published African-American poet. 1765–1767 Non-Importation Agreements – The First Continental Congress creates a multi-colony agreement to forbid importation of anything from British merchants. This implicitly includes slaves, and stops the slave trade in Philadelphia. The second similar act explicitly stops the slave trade.[11] 1770 March 5 – Crispus Attucks is killed by British soldiers in the Boston Massacre, a precursor to the American Revolution. 1773 Phillis Wheatley has her book Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral published. 1774 The first black Baptist congregations are organized in the South: Silver Bluff Baptist Church in South Carolina, and First African Baptist Church near Petersburg, Virginia. 1775 April 14 – The Society for the Relief of Free Negroes Unlawfully held in Bondage holds four meetings. It was re-formed in 1784 as the Pennsylvania Abolition Society, and Benjamin Franklin would later be its president. 1776–1783 American Revolution Thousands of enslaved African Americans in the South escape to British lines, as they were promised freedom to fight with the British. In South Carolina, 25,000 enslaved African Americans, one-quarter of those held, escape to the British or otherwise leave their plantations.[12] After the war, many African Americans are evacuated with the British for England; more than 3,000 Black Loyalists are transported with other Loyalists to Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, where they are granted land. Still others go to Jamaica and the West Indies. An estimated 8-10,000 were evacuated from the colonies in these years as free people, about 50 percent of those slaves who defected to the British and about 80 percent of those who survived.[13] Many free blacks in the North fight with the colonists for the rebellion. 1777 July 8 – The Vermont Republic (a sovereign nation at the time) abolishes slavery, the first future state to do so. No slaves were held in Vermont. 1780 Pennsylvania becomes the first U.S. state to abolish slavery. 1781 In challenges by Elizabeth Freeman and Quock Walker, two independent county courts in Massachusetts found slavery illegal under state constitution and declared each to be free persons. 1783 Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court affirmed that Massachusetts state constitution had abolished slavery. It ruled that "the granting of rights and privileges [was] wholly incompatible and repugnant to" slavery, in an appeal case arising from the escape of Marijonas Mikutavicius – singer author of Trys Milijonai the unofficial sports anthem in Lithuania Vincas Niekus – lt Vincas Niekus composer Virgilijus Noreika – one of the most successful opera singers tenor Mykolas Kleopas Oginskis – one of the best composer of the late th century Kipras Petrauskas – lt Kipras Petrauskas popular early opera singer tenor Stasys Povilaitis – one of the popular singers during the Soviet period Violeta Riaubiškyte – pop singer TV show host Mindaugas Rojus opera singer tenor baritone Ceslovas Sasnauskas – composer Rasa Serra – lt Rasa Serra real name Rasa Veretenceviene singer Traditional folk A cappella jazz POP Audrone Simonaityte Gaižiuniene – lt Audrone Gaižiuniene Simonaityte one of the more popular female opera singers soprano Virgis Stakenas – lt Virgis Stakenas singer of country folk music Antanas Šabaniauskas – lt Antanas Šabaniauskas singer tenor Jurga Šeduikyte – art rock musician won the Best Female Act and the Best Album of in the Lithuanian Bravo Awards and the Best Baltic Act at the MTV Europe Music Awards Jonas Švedas – composer Michael Tchaban composer singer and songwriter Violeta Urmanaviciute Urmana opera singer soprano mezzosoprano appearing internationally Painters and graphic artists edit See also List of Lithuanian artists Robertas Antinis – sculptor Vytautas Ciplijauskas lt Vytautas Ciplijauskas painter Jonas Ceponis – lt Jonas Ceponis painter Mikalojus Konstantinas Ciurlionis – painter and composer Asteroid Ciurlionis is named for him Kostas Dereškevicius lt Kostas Dereškevicius painter Vladimiras Dubeneckis painter architect Stasys Eidrigevicius graphic artist Pranas Gailius lt Pranas Gailius painter Paulius Galaune Petronele Gerlikiene – self taught Lithuanian American artist Algirdas Griškevicius lt Algirdas Griškevicius Vincas Grybas – sculptor Leonardas Gutauskas lt Leonardas Gutauskas painter writer Vytautas Kairiukštis – lt Vytautas Kairiukštis painter art critic Vytautas Kasiulis – lt Vytautas Kasiulis painter graphic artist stage designer Petras Kalpokas painter Rimtas Kalpokas – lt Rimtas Kalpokas painter graphic artist Leonas Katinas – lt Leonas Katinas painter Povilas Kaupas – lt Povilas Kaupas Algimantas Kezys Lithuanian American photographer Vincas Kisarauskas – lt Vincas Kisarauskas painter graphic artist stage designer Saulute Stanislava Kisarauskiene – lt Saulute Stanislava Kisarauskiene graphic artist painter Stasys Krasauskas – lt Stasys Krasauskas graphic artist Stanislovas Kuzma – lt Stanislovas Kuzma sculptor Antanas Martinaitis – lt Antanas Martinaitis painter Jonas Rimša – lt Jonas Rimša painter Jan Rustem painter Antanas Samuolis – lt Antanas Samuolis painter Šarunas Sauka painter Boris Schatz – sculptor and founder of the Bezalel Academy Irena Sibley née Pauliukonis – Children s book author and illustrator Algis Skackauskas – painter Antanas Žmuidzinavicius – painter Franciszek Smuglewicz – painter Yehezkel Streichman Israeli painter Kazys Šimonis – painter Algimantas Švegžda – lt Algimantas Švegžda painter Otis Tamašauskas Lithographer Print Maker Graphic Artist Adolfas Valeška – painter and graphic artist Adomas Varnas – painter Kazys Varnelis – artist Vladas Vildžiunas lt Vladas Vildžiunas sculptor Mikalojus Povilas Vilutis lt Mikalojus Povilas Vilutis graphic artist Viktoras Vizgirda – painter William Zorach – Modern artist who died in Bath Maine Antanas Žmuidzinavicius – painter Kazimieras Leonardas Žoromskis – painter Politics edit President Valdas Adamkus right chatting with Vice President Dick Cheney left See also List of Lithuanian rulers Mindaugas – the first and only King of Lithuania – Gediminas – the ruler of Lithuania – Algirdas – the ruler together with Kestutis of Lithuania – Kestutis – the ruler together with Algirdas of Lithuania – Vytautas – the ruler of Lithuania – together with Jogaila Jogaila – the ruler of Lithuania – from to together with Vytautas the king of Poland – Jonušas Radvila – the field hetman of Grand Duchy of Lithuania – Dalia Grybauskaite – current President of Lithuania since Valdas Adamkus – President of Lithuania till Jonas Basanavicius – "father" of the Act of Independence of Algirdas Brazauskas – the former First secretary of Central Committee of Communist Party of Lithuanian SSR the former president of Lithuania after and former Prime Minister of Lithuania Joe Fine – mayor of Marquette Michigan – Kazys Grinius – politician third President of Lithuania Mykolas Krupavicius – priest behind the land reform in interwar Lithuania Vytautas Landsbergis – politician professor leader of Sajudis the independence movement former speaker of Seimas member of European Parliament Stasys Lozoraitis – diplomat and leader of Lithuanian government in exile – Stasys Lozoraitis junior – politician diplomat succeeded his father as leader of Lithuanian government in exile – Antanas Merkys – the last Prime Minister of interwar Lithuania Rolandas Paksas – former President removed from the office after impeachment Justas Paleckis – journalist and politician puppet Prime Minister after Soviet occupation Kazimiera Prunskiene – the first female Prime Minister Mykolas Sleževicius – three times Prime Minister organized

refugees expelled from Asia Minor after the Greco Turkish War swelled Athens's population nevertheless it was most particularly following World War II and from the s and s that the population of the city exploded and Athens experienced a gradual expansion In the s it became evident that smog from factories and an ever increasing fleet of automobiles as well as a lack of adequate free space due to congestion had evolved into the city's most important challenge A series of anti pollution measures taken by the city's authorities in the s combined with a substantial improvement of the city's infrastructure including the Attiki Odos motorway the expansion of the Athens Metro and the new Athens International Airport considerably alleviated pollution and transformed Athens into a much more functional city In Athens hosted the Summer Olympics It also hosted the Miss Universe pageant View of the Parthenon Geography edit Geology edit View of Mount Penteli the second tallest mountain surrounding Athens Mount Lycabettus Athens sprawls across the central plain of Attica that is often referred to as the Athens or Attica Basin Greek ?e?a??p?d?? ?tt???? The basin is bounded by four large mountains Mount Aegaleo to the west Mount Parnitha to the north Mount Penteli to the northeast and Mount Hymettus to the east Beyond Mount Aegaleo lies the Thriasian plain which forms an extension of the central plain to the west The Saronic Gulf lies to the southwest Mount Parnitha is the tallest of the four mountains m ft and has been declared a national park Athens is built around a number of hills Lycabettus is one of the tallest hills of the city proper and provides a view of the entire Attica Basin The geomorphology of Athens is deemed to be one of the most complex in the world because its mountains cause a temperature inversion phenomenon which along with the Greek Government's difficulties controlling industrial pollution was responsible for the air pollution problems the city has faced This issue is not unique to Athens for instance Los Angeles and Mexico City also suffer from similar geomorphology inversion problems The Cephissus river the Ilisos and the Eridanos stream are the historical rivers of Athens Climate edit Athens has a subtropical Mediterranean climate Köppen Csa and receives just enough annual precipitation to avoid Köppen's BSh semi arid climate classification The dominant feature of Athens's climate is alternation between prolonged hot and dry summers and mild winters with moderate rainfall With an average of millimetres in of yearly precipitation rainfall occurs largely between the months of October and April July and August are the driest months where thunderstorms occur sparsely once or twice a month Winters are mild and rainy with a January average of °C °F in Nea Filadelfeia and °C °F in Hellinikon Snowstorms are infrequent but can cause disruption when they occur Snowfalls are more frequent in the northern suburbs of the city The annual precipitation of Athens is typically lower than in other parts of Greece mainly in western Greece As an example Ioannina receives around mm in per year and Agrinio around mm in per year Daily average highs for July – have been measured at °C °F at Nea Filadelfeia weather station but other parts of the city may be even warmer in particular its western areas partly because of industrialization and partly because of a number of natural factors knowledge of which has been available from the mid th century Temperatures often surpass °C °F during the city's notorious heatwaves Athens is affected by the urban heat island effect in some areas which is caused by human activity altering its temperatures compared to the surrounding rural areas and bearing detrimental effects on energy usage expenditure for cooling and health The urban heat island of the city has also been found to be partially responsible for alterations of the climatological temperature time series of specific Athens meteorological stations because of its impact on the temperatures and the temperature trends recorded by some meteorological stations On the other hand specific meteorological stations such as the National Garden station and Thiseio meteorological station are less affected or do not experience the urban heat island Athens holds the World Meteorological Organization record for the highest temperature ever recorded in Europe at °C °F which was recorded in the Elefsina and Tatoi suburbs of Athens on July hide Climate data for Athens Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Average high °C °F Daily mean °C °F Average low °C °F Average rainfall mm inches Average rainy days Average relative humidity Mean monthly sunshine hours Source Climatebase temperatures RH and sun – World Meteorological Organization precipitation – hide Climate data for National Observatory of Athens Thiseio m asl – – rain Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Average high °C °F Average low °C °F Average precipitation mm inches Source National Observatory of Athens Administration edit The former Athens Prefecture blue within the region of Attica grey Athens became the capital of Greece in following Nafplion which was the provisional capital from The municipality City of Athens is also the capital of the Attica region Athens can refer either to the municipality of Athens to Greater Athens or to the entire Athens Urban Area Attica region edit The Athens Metropolitan Area sprawling over km sq mi is located within the km sq mi Attica region The region encompasses the most populated region of Greece reaching inhabitants in while it is however one of the smallest regions in the country The Attica region itself is split into eight regional units out of which the first four form Greater Athens while the regional unit of Piraeus forms Greater Piraeus Together they make up the contiguous built up Athens Urban Area spanning over km sq mi North Athens Greater Athens Athens Urban Area West Athens Greater Athens Athens Urban Area Central Athens Greater Athens Athens Urban Area South Athens Greater Athens Athens Urban Area Piraeus Greater Piraeus Athens Urban Area East Attica Athens Metropolitan Area West Attica Athens Metropolitan Area Attica Islands Until the first four regional units above also made up the abolished Athens Prefecture what is referred to as Greater Athens which was the most populous of the Prefectures of Greece at the time accounting for people in within an area of km sq mi Municipality City of Athens edit The seven districts of the Athens municipality The municipality City of Athens is the most populous in Greece with a population of people in and an area of km sq mi forming the core of the Athens Urban Area within the Attica Basin The current mayor of Athens is Giorgos Kaminis The municipality is divided into seven municipal districts which are mainly used for administrative purposes Population data for the municipal districts of Athens census st nd rd th th th th For the Athenians the most popular way of dividing the City proper is through its neighbourhoods such as Pagkrati Ambelokipi Exarcheia Patissia Ilissia Petralona Koukaki and Kypseli each with its own distinct history and characteristics The Athens municipality also forms the core and center of Greater Athens which consists of the Athens municipality and more municipalities which are divided in the four regional units North West Central and South Athens mentioned above Municipalities of Greater Athens Central Section City of Athens Dafni Ilioupoli Vyronas Kaisariani Zografou Galatsi Filadelfeia West Section Egaleo Agia Varvara Chaidari Peristeri Petroupoli Ilion Agioi Anargyroi – Kamatero Athens North Section Nea Ionia Irakleio Metamorfosi Lykovrysi – Pefki Kifissia Penteli Melissia Amarousio Vrilissia Ag Paraskevi Cholargos – Papagou Chalandri Filothei – Psychiko South Section Glyfada Elliniko Argyroupoli Alimos Agios Dimitrios Nea Smyrni Faliro Kallithea Moschato The municipalities of Greater Athens along with the municipalities within Greater Piraeus regional unit of Piraeus form the Athens Urban Area while the larger metropolitan area includes several additional suburbs and towns surrounding the dense urban area of the Greek capital Cityscape edit Panoramic view from Areopagus hill View of parts of central Athens and its eastern suburbs from Mount Lycabettus Architecture edit A neoclassical th century mansion with Art Nouveau and Eclecticist elements in the Makrygianni district Zappeion Hall Athens Tower Complex – Athens incorporates architectural styles ranging from Greco Roman and Neoclassical to modern They are often to be found in the same areas as Athens is not marked by a uniformity of architectural style For the greatet part of the th century Neoclassicism dominated Athens as well as some deviations from it such as Eclecticism especially in the early th century Thus the Hellenic Parliament was the first important public building to be built between and Later in the mid and late th century Theophil Freiherr von Hansen and Ernst Ziller took part in the construction of many neoclassical buildings such as the Athens Academy and the Zappeion Hall Ziller also designed many private mansions in the centre of Athens which gradually became public usually through donations such as Schliemann's Iliou Melathron Beginning in the s Modern architecture including Bauhaus and Art Deco began to exert an influence on almost all Greek architects and buildings both public and private were constructed in accordance with these styles Localities with a great number of such buildings include Kolonaki and some areas of the centre of the city neighbourhoods developed in this period include Kypseli In the s and s during the extension and development of Athens other modern movements such as the International style played an important role The centre of Athens was largely rebuilt leading to the demolition of a number of neoclassical buildings The architects of this era employed materials such as glass marble and aluminium and many blended modern and classical elements After World War II internationally known architects to have designed and built in the city included Walter Gropius with his design for the US Embassy and among others Eero Saarinen in his postwar design for the east terminal of the Ellinikon Airport Notable Greek architects of the s– s included Konstantinos Doxiadis Dimitris Pikionis Pericles A Sakellarios Aris Konstantinidis and others City of Athens neighbourhoods edit Street sign in Athens Street in Plaka The municipality of Athens the city centre of the Athens Urban Area is divided into several districts Omonoia Syntagma Exarcheia Agios Nikolaos Neapolis Lykavittos Lofos Strefi Lofos Finopoulou Lofos Filopappou Pedion Areos Metaxourgeio Aghios Kostantinos Larissa Station Kerameikos Psiri Monastiraki Gazi Thission Kapnikarea Aghia Irini Aerides Anafiotika Plaka Acropolis Pnyka Makrygianni Lofos Ardittou Zappeion Aghios Spyridon Pangration Kolonaki Dexameni Evaggelismos Gouva Aghios Ioannis Neos Kosmos Koukaki Kynosargous Fix Ano Petralona Kato Petralona Rouf Votanikos Profitis Daniil Akadimia Platonos Kolonos Kolokynthou Attikis Square Lofos Skouze Sepolia Kypseli Aghios Meletios Nea Kypseli Gyzi Polygono Ampelokipoi Panormou Gerokomeio Pentagono Ellinorosson Nea Filothei Ano Kypseli Tourkovounia Lofos Patatsou Lofos Elikonos Koliatsou Thymarakia Kato Patisia Treis Gefyres Aghios Eleftherios Ano Patisia Kypriadou Prompona Aghios Panteleimonas Pangrati Goudi and Ilisia Omonoia Omonoia Square Greek ??ate?a ?µ????a? is the oldest square in Athens It is surrounded by hotels and fast food outlets and contains a train station used by the Athens Metro and the Ilektrikos named Omonoia Station The square is the focus for celebration of sporting victories as seen after the country's winning of the Euro and the Eurobasket tournaments Metaxourgeio Greek ?eta?????e?? is a neighborhood of Athens The neighborhood is located north of the historical centre of Athens between Kolonos to the east and Kerameikos to the west and north of Gazi Metaxourgeio is frequently described as a transition neighborhood After a long period of abandonment in the late th century the area is acquiring a reputation as an artistic and fashionable neighborhood following the opening of art galleries museums restaurants and cafes Local efforts to beautify and invigorate the neighborhood have reinforced a sense of community and artistic expression Anonymous art pieces containing quotes and statements in both English and Ancient Greek have sprung up throughout the neighborhood bearing statements such as "Art for art's sake" ????? t????? ????? Guerilla gardening has also helped to beautify the area Psiri and Gazi – The reviving Psiri Greek ????? neighbourhood – also known as Athens's "meat packing district" – is dotted with renovated former mansions artists' spaces and small gallery areas A number of its renovated buildings also host fashionable bars making it a hotspot for the city in the last decade while live music restaurants known as "rebetadika" after rebetiko a unique form of music that blossomed in Syros and Athens from the s until the s are to be found Rebetiko is admired by many and as a result rebetadika are often crammed with people of all ages who will sing dance and drink till dawn The Gazi Greek G???? area one of the latest in full redevelopment is located around a historic gas factory now converted into the Technopolis cultural multiplex and also includes artists' areas small clubs bars and restaurants as well as Athens's "Gay 1884 Mark Twain's Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is published, featuring the admirable African-American character Jim. Judy W. Reed, of Washington, D.C., and Sarah E. Goode, of Chicago, are the first African-American women inventors to receive patents. Signed with an "X", Reed's patent no. 305,474, granted September 23, 1884, is for a dough kneader and roller. Goode's patent for a cabinet bed, patent no. 322,177, is issued on July 14, 1885. Goode, the owner of a Chicago furniture store, invented a folding bed that could be formed into a desk when not in use. Ida B. Wells sues the Chesapeake, Ohio & South Western Railroad Company for its use of segregated "Jim Crow" cars. 1886 Norris Wright Cuney becomes the chairman of the Texas Republican Party, the most powerful role held by any African American in the South during the 19th century. 1887 October 3 – The State Normal School for Colored Students, which would become Florida A&M University, is founded. 1890 Mississippi, with a white Democrat-dominated legislature, passes a new constitution that effectively disfranchises most blacks through voter registration and electoral requirements, e.g., poll taxes, residency tests and literacy tests. This shuts them out of the political process, including service on juries and in local offices. By 1900 two-thirds of the farmers in the bottomlands of the Mississippi Delta are African Americans who cleared and bought land after the Civil War.[23] 1892 Ida B. Wells publishes her pamphlet Southern Horrors: Lynch Law in All Its Phases. 1893 Daniel Hale Williams performed open-heart surgery in 1893 and founded Provident Hospital in Chicago, the first with an interracial staff.[24] 1895 September 18 – Booker T. Washington delivers his Atlanta Compromise address at the Cotton States and International Exposition in Atlanta, Georgia. W. E. B. Du Bois is the first African-American to be awarded a Ph.D by Harvard University. 1896 May 18 – In Plessy v. Ferguson, the U.S. Supreme Court upholds de jure racial segregation of "separate but equal" facilities. (see "Jim Crow laws" for historical discussion). The National Association of Colored Women is formed by the merger of smaller groups. As one of the earliest Black Hebrew Israelites in the United States, William Saunders Crowdy re-establishes the Church of God and Saints of Christ. George Washington Carver is invited by Booker T. Washington to head the Agricultural Department at what would become Tuskegee University. His work would revolutionize farming – he found about 300 uses for peanuts. 1898 Louisiana enacts the first statewide grandfather clause that provides exemption for illiterate whites to voter registration literacy test requirements. In Williams v. Mississippi the U.S. Supreme Court upholds the voter registration and election provisions of Mississippi's constitution because they applied to all citizens. Effectively, however, they disenfranchise blacks and poor whites. The result is that other southern states copy these provisions in their new constitutions and amendments through 1908, disfranchising most African Americans and tens of thousands of poor whites until the 1960s. November 10 – Coup d'état begins in Wilmington, North Carolina, resulting in considerable loss of life and property in the African-American community and the installation of a white supremacist Democratic Party regime. 1899 September 18 – The "Maple Leaf Rag" is an early ragtime composition for piano by Scott Joplin. 20th century[edit] 1900–1924[edit] 1900 Since the Civil War, 30,000 African-American teachers had been trained and put to work in the South. The majority of blacks had become literate.[25] 1901 Booker T. Washington's autobiography Up from Slavery is published. Benjamin Tillman, senator from South Carolina, comments on Theodore Roosevelt's dining with Booker T. Washington: “The action of President Roosevelt in entertaining that nigger will necessitate our killing a thousand niggers in the South before they learn their place again.”[26] 1903 September – W. E. B. Du Bois's article The Talented Tenth published. W. E. B. Du Bois's seminal work The Souls of Black Folk is published. 1904 May 15 – Sigma Pi Phi, the first African-American Greek-letter organization, is founded by African-American men as a professional organization, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Orlando, Florida hires its first black postman. 1905 July 11 – First meeting of the Niagara Movement, an interracial group to work for civil rights.[27] 1906 The Brownsville Affair, which eventually involves President Roosevelt.[27] December 4 – African-American men found Alpha Phi Alpha at Cornell University, the first intercollegiate fraternity for African-American men. 1907 National Primitive Baptist Convention of the U.S.A. formed. 1908 December 26 – Jack Johnson wins the World Heavyweight Title. Alpha Kappa Alpha at Howard University; African-American college women found the first college sorority for African-American women. 1909 February 12 – Planned first meeting of group which would become the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), an interracial group devoted to civil rights. The meeting actually occurs on May 31, but February 12 is normally cited as the NAACP's founding date. May 31 – The National Negro Committee meets and is formed; it will be the precursor to the NAACP. 1910 May 30 – The National Negro Committee chooses "National Association for the Advancement of Colored People" as its organization name. September 29 – Committee on Urban Conditions Among Negroes formed; the next year it will merge with other groups to form the National Urban League. The NAACP begins publishing The Crisis. 1911 January 5 – Kappa Alpha Psi Fraternity, Inc. was founded at Indiana University. November 17 – Omega Psi Phi Fraternity, Inc., which is the first African-American Greek-lettered organization founded at an HBCU (Howard University). 1913 The Moorish Science Temple of America, a religious organization, is founded by Noble Drew Ali (Timothy Drew). January 13 – Delta Sigma Theta Sorority, Inc., was founded at Howard University 1914 January 9 – Phi Beta Sigma Fraternity, Inc. was founded at Howard University by A. Langston Taylor, Leonard F. Morse, and Charles I. Brown Newly elected president Woodrow Wilson orders physical re-segregation of federal workplaces and employment after nearly 50 years of integrated facilities.[28][29][30] 1915 February 8 – The Birth of a Nation is released to film theaters. The NAACP protests in cities across the country, convincing some not to show the film. June 21 – In Guinn v. United States, the U.S. Supreme Court rules against grandfather clauses used to deny blacks the right to vote. September 9 – Professor Carter G. Woodson founds the Association for the Study of African American Life and History in Chicago. A schism from the National Baptist Convention, USA, Inc. forms the National Baptist Convention of America, Inc. 1916 January – Professor Carter Woodson and the Association for the Study of Negro Life and History begins publishing the Journal of Negro History, the first academic journal devoted to the study of African-American history. March 23 – Marcus Garvey arrives in the U.S. (see Garveyism). Los Angeles hires the country's first black female police officer.[citation needed] The Great Migration begins and lasts until 1940. Approximately one and a half million African-Americans move from the Southern United States to the North and Midwest. More than five million migrate in the Second Great Migration from 1940 to 1970, which includes more destinations in California and the West. 1917 May–June – East St. Louis Riot August 23 – Houston Riot In Buchanan v. Warley, the U.S. Supreme Court upholds that racially segregated housing violates the 14th Amendment. 1918 Viola Pettus, an African-American nurse in Marathon, Texas, wins attention for her courageous care of victims of the Spanish Influenza, including members of the Ku Klux Klan. Mary Turner was a 33-year-old lynched in Lowndes County, Georgia who was Eight months pregnant. Turner and her child were murdered after she publicly denounced the extrajudicial killing of her husband by a mob. Her death is considered a stark example of racially motivated mob violence in the American south, and was referenced by the NAACP's anti-lynching campaign of the 1920s, 1930s and 1940s. 1919 Summer – Red Summer of 1919 riots: Chicago, Washington, D.C.; Knoxville, Indianapolis, and elsewhere. September 28 – Omaha Race Riot of 1919, Nebraska. October 1–5 – Elaine Race Riot, Phillips County, Arkansas. Numerous blacks are convicted by an all-white jury or plead guilty. In Moore v. Dempsey (1923), the U.S. Supreme Court overturns six convictions for denial of due process under the Fourteenth Amendment. 1920 February 13 – Negro National League (1920–1931) established. Fritz Pollard and Bobby Marshall are the first two African-American players in the National Football League (NFL). Pollard goes on to become the first African-American coach in the NFL. January 16 – Zeta Phi Beta Sorority, Inc., was founded at Howard University 1921 May 23 – Shuffle Along is the first major African American hit musical on Broadway. May 31 – Tulsa Race Riot, Oklahoma Bessie Coleman becomes the first African American to earn a pilot's license. 1923 Garrett A. Morgan invented and patented the first automatic three-position traffic light.[31] January 1–7 – Rosewood massacre: Six African Americans and two whites die in a week of violence when a white woman in Rosewood, Florida, claims she was beaten and raped by a black man. February 19 – In Moore v. Dempsey, the U.S. Supreme Court holds that mob-dominated trials violate the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. Jean Toomer's novel Cane is published. 1924 Knights of Columbus commissions and publishes The Gift of Black Folk: The Negroes in the Making of America by civil rights activist and NAACP cofounder W. E. B. Du Bois as part of the organization's Racial Contribution Series. Spelman Seminary becomes Spelman College. 1925–1949[edit] 1925 Spring – American Negro Labor Congress is founded. August 8 – 35,000 Ku Klux Klan members march in Washington, D.C. (see List of protest marches on Washington, D.C.) Countee Cullen publishes his first collection of poems in Color. Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters is organized. The Harlem Renaissance (also known as the New Negro Movement) is named after the anthology The New Negro, edited by Alain Locke . 1926 The Harlem Globetrotters are founded. Historian Carter G. Woodson proposes Negro History Week. Corrigan v Buckley challenges deed restrictions preventing a white seller from selling to a black buyer. The U.S. Supreme Court rules in favor of Buckley, stating that the 14th Amendment does not apply because Washington, DC is a city and not a state, thereby rendering the Due Process Clause inapplicable. Also, that the Due Process Clause does not apply to private agreements. 1928 Claude McKay's Home to Harlem wins the Harmon Gold Award for Literature. 1929 The League of United Latin American Citizens, the first organization to fight for the civil rights of Latino Americans, is founded in Corpus Christi, Texas. John Hope becomes president of Atlanta University. Graduate classes are offered in the liberal arts, and Atlanta University becomes the first predominantly black university to offer graduate education. Unknown – Hallelujah! is released, one of the first films to star an all-black cast. 1930 August 7 – Thomas Shipp and Abram Smith were African-American men lynched in Marion, Indiana, after being taken from jail and beaten by a mob. They had been arrested that night as suspects in a robbery, murder and rape case. A third African-American suspect, 16-year-old James Cameron, had also been arrested and narrowly escaped being killed by the mob. He later became a civil rights activist.[32] The League of Struggle for Negro Rights is founded in New York City. Jessie Daniel Ames forms the Association of Southern Women for the Prevention of Lynching. She gets 40,000 white women to sign a pledge against lynching and for change in the South.[33] 1931 March 25 – Scottsboro Boys arrested in what would become a nationally controversial case. Walter Francis White becomes the executive secretary of the NAACP. 1932 The Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male begins at Tuskegee University. 1933 Hocutt v. Wilson unsuccessfully challenged segregation in higher education in the United States. 1934 Wallace D. Fard, leader of the Nation of Islam, mysteriously disappears. He is succeeded by Elijah Muhammad. 1935 June 18 – In Murray v. Pearson, Thurgood Marshall and Charles Hamilton Houston of the NAACP successfully argue the landmark case in Maryland to open admissions to the segregated University of Maryland School of Law on the basis of equal protection under the Fourteenth Amendment. Jesse Owens wins gold medals in front of Hitler. 1936 August – American sprinter Jesse Owens wins four gold medals at the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin. 1937 6.2.1 General works 6.2.2 Baseball 6.2.3 Boxing 6.2.4 Chess 6.2.5 Olympics Athletes[edit] Baseball[edit] Ryan Braun, outfielder (Milwaukee Brewers) Ike Davis, first baseman (Oakland Athletics) Ian Kinsler, second baseman (Detroit Tigers) Ryan Lavarnway, catcher (Atlanta Braves) Jason Marquis, pitcher (Cincinnati Reds) Joc Pederson, outfielder (Los Angeles Dodgers) Kevin Youkilis, first and third baseman Cal Abrams, US, outfielder[2] Rubén Amaro, Jr., US, outfielder, general manager (Philadelphia Phillies)[2] Morrie Arnovich, US, outfielder, All-Star[2] Brad Ausmus, US, catcher, All-Star, 3x Gold Glove, manager of the Detroit Tigers[2] José Bautista, Dominican-born, pitcher[2] Robert "Bo" Belinsky, U.S., pitcher. Pitched no-hit game as rookie with Los Angeles Angels in 1962.[3] Moe Berg, US, catcher & shortstop, and spy for US in World War II[2] Ron Blomberg, US, DH/first baseman/outfielder, Major League Baseball's first designated hitter[4] Lou Boudreau, US, shortstop, 8x All-Star, batting title, MVP, Baseball Hall of Fame, manager[2] Ralph Branca, US, pitcher, 3x All-Star[5] Ryan Braun, US, outfielder, 2007 Rookie of the Year, home run champion, 5x All-Star, 5x Silver Slugger, 2011 National League MVP (Milwaukee Brewers)[6] Craig Breslow, US, relief pitcher (Boston Red Sox)[2] Mark Clear, US, relief pitcher, 2x All-Star[7] Andy Cohen, US, second baseman, coach Harry Danning, US, catcher, 4x All-Star[2][8] Ike Davis, US, first baseman (Oakland Athletics)[9] Moe Drabowsky, US, pitcher[10] Harry Eisenstat, US, pitcher[11] Mike Epstein, US, first baseman[2] Harry Feldman, US, pitcher[2] Scott Feldman, US, pitcher (Houston Astros)[2] Gavin Fingleson, South African-born Australian, Olympic silver medalist[12] Nate Freiman, US, first baseman (Oakland Athletics)[13][14] Sam Fuld, US, outfielder (Oakland Athletics)[15] Sid Gordon, US, outfielder & third baseman, 2x All-Star[2] John Grabow, US, relief pitcher[2] Shawn Green, US, right fielder, 2x All-Star, Gold Glove, Silver Slugger[2] Hank Greenberg, US, first baseman & outfielder, 5x All-Star, 4x home run champion, 4x RBI leader, 2x MVP, Baseball Hall of Fame[2] Ken Holtzman, US, starting pitcher, 2x All-Star[2] Joe Horlen, US, pitcher, All-Star, ERA leader[2] Gabe Kapler, US, outfielder[2] Ian Kinsler, US, second baseman, 3x All-Star (Detroit Tigers)[16] Sandy Koufax, US, starting pitcher, 6x All-Star, 5x ERA leader, 4x strikeouts leader, 3x Wins leader, 2x W-L% leader, 1 perfect game, MVP, 3x Cy Young Award, Baseball Hall of Fame[2] Barry Latman, US, pitcher[11] Ryan Lavarnway, US, catcher (Atlanta Braves)[17] Al Levine, US, relief pitcher[2] Mike Lieberthal, US, catcher, 2x All-Star, Gold Glove[2] Elliott Maddox, US, outfielder & third baseman[2] Jason Marquis, US, starting pitcher, Silver Slugger, All Star (Cincinnati Reds)[2] Erskine Mayer, US, pitcher[2] Bob Melvin, US, catcher & manager of the Oakland Athletics[18] Jon Moscot, US, pitcher (Cincinnati Reds)[19] Jeff Newman, US, catcher & first baseman, All-Star, manager[2] Joc Pederson, US, outfielder (Los Angeles Dodgers)[20] Barney Pelty, US, pitcher[2] Lipman Pike, US, outfielder, second baseman, & manager, 4x home run champion, RBI leader[2] Kevin Pillar, US, outfielder (Toronto Blue Jays) Aaron Poreda, US, pitcher (Yomiuri Giants)[2] Scott Radinsky, US, relief pitcher[2] Dave Roberts, US, pitcher[2] Saul Rogovin, US, pitcher[2] Al "Flip" Rosen, US, third baseman & first baseman, 4x All-Star, 2x home run champion, 2x RBI leader, MVP[2] Goody Rosen, Canada, outfielder, All-Star[2] Josh Satin, US, second baseman (Cincinnati Reds)[21] Richie Scheinblum, US, outfielder, All-Star[2] Scott Schoeneweis, US, pitcher[2] Michael Schwimer, US, relief pitcher (Toronto Blue Jays)[22] Art Shamsky, US, outfielder & first baseman[2] Larry Sherry, US, relief pitcher[2] Norm Sherry, US, catcher & manager[2] Moe "the Rabbi of Swat" Solomon, US, outfielder[2] George Stone, US, outfielder, 1x batting title[23] Steve Stone, US, starting pitcher, All-Star, Cy Young Award[2] Danny Valencia, US, third baseman (Oakland Athletics)[24] Phil "Mickey" Weintraub, US, first baseman & outfielder Josh Whitesell, US, first baseman (Saraperos de Saltillo)[25] Steve Yeager, US, catcher[2] Kevin Youkilis, US, first baseman, third baseman, & left fielder, 3x All-Star, Gold Glove, Hank Aaron Award[2] Josh Zeid, US, pitcher for the Detroit Tigers Basketball[edit] Omri Casspi Jordan Farmar Gal Mekel Jon Scheyer Sam Balter, US, 5' 10" guard, Olympic champion[8][26] Sue Bird, US & Israel, WNBA 5' 9" point guard, 2x Olympic champion, 4x All-Star (Seattle Storm)[27] David Blatt, US & Israel, Israeli Premier League 6' 3.5" point guard, coached Russia National Basketball Team, Israel's Maccabi Tel Aviv to Euroleague Championship, Euroleague Coach of the Year, 4x Israeli Coach of the Year, Head Coach of Cleveland Cavaliers[28][29] David Blu (formerly "Bluthenthal"), US & Israel, Euroleague 6' 7" forward (Maccabi Tel Aviv)[30] Harry Boykoff, US, NBA 6' 10" center[31] Tal Brody, US & Israel, Euroleague 6' 2" shooting guard[8] Larry Brown, US, ABA 5' 9" point guard, 3x All-Star, 3x assists leader, NCAA National Championship coach (1988), NBA coach, Olympic champion, Hall of Fame[8][26] Omri Casspi, Israel, 6' 9" small forward, drafted in 1st round of 2009 NBA Draft (Sacramento Kings)[32] Shay Doron, Israel & US, WNBA 5' 9" guard (New York Liberty)[33] Lior Eliyahu, Israel, 6' 9" power forward, NBA draft 2006 (Orlando Magic; traded to Houston Rockets), playing in the Euroleague (Hapoel Jerusalem)[34] Jordan Farmar, US, NBA 6' 2" point guard (Los Angeles Clippers)[35] Marty Friedman, US, 5' 7" guard & coach, Hall of Fame[8] Ernie Grunfeld, Romania-born US, NBA 6' 6" guard/forward & GM, Olympic champion[36] Yotam Halperin, Israel, 6' 5" guard, drafted in 2006 NBA draft by Seattle SuperSonics (Hapoel Jerusalem)[34] Sonny Hertzberg, US, NBA 5' 9" point guard, original NY Knickerbocker[37] Art Heyman, US, NBA 6' 5" forward/guard[37] Nat Holman, US, ABL 5' 11" guard & coach, Hall of Fame[8] Red Holzman, US, BAA & NBA 5' 10" guard, 2x All-Star, & NBA coach, NBA Coach of the Year, Hall of Fame[8] Eban Hyams, India-Israel-Australia, 6' 5" guard formerly of the Australian National Basketball League, Israeli Super League, first ever Indian national to play in ULEB competitions[38] Barry Kramer, first team All-American at NYU in 1963 Joel Kramer, US Phoenix Suns 6'7" forward Sylven Landesberg, US, 6' 6" former UVA shooting guard (Maccabi Tel Aviv)[39] Rudy LaRusso, US, NBA 6' 7" forward/center, 5x All-Star[40] Nancy Lieberman, US, WNBA player, general manager, & coach, Olympic silver, Hall of Fame[26][41] Gal Mekel, Israel, NBA 6' 3" point guard (Dallas Mavericks)[42] Bernard Opper, US, NBL and ABL 5' 10" guard, All-American at University of Kentucky Donna Orender (née Geils), US, Women's Pro Basketball League 5' 7" point guard, All-Star, current WNBA president[37] Lennie Rosenbluth, US, NBA 6' 4" forward[36] Danny Schayes, US, NBA 6' 11" center/forward (son of Dolph Schayes)[37] Dolph Schayes, US, NBA 6' 7" forward/center, 3x FT% leader, 1x rebound leader, 12x All-Star, Hall of Fame, & coach (father of Danny Schayes)[8] Ossie Schectman, US, NBA 6' 0" guard, scorer of first NBA basket[36] Doron Sheffer, US (college), Maccabi Tel Aviv,Hapoel Jerusalem Jon Scheyer, US, All-American Duke University 6' 5" shooting guard & point guard (Maccabi Tel Aviv)[43] Barney Sedran, US, Hudson River League & New York State League 5' 4" guard, Hall of Fame[8] Sidney Tannenbaum, US, BAA 6' 0" guard, 2x All-American, left as NYU all-time scorer[8] Alex Tyus, US & Israel, 6' 8" power forward/center (Maccabi Tel Aviv) Neal Walk, US, NBA 6' 10" center[37] Max Zaslofsky, US, NBA 6' 2" guard/forward, 1x FT% leader, 1x points leader, All-Star, ABA coach[8] Bowling[edit] Barry Asher, 10 PBA titles, PBA Hall of Fame[7] Marshall Holman, 22 PBA titles (11th all-time); PBA Hall of Fame[44] Mark Roth, 34 PBA titles (5th all-time); PBA Hall of Fame[45] Boxing[edit] Yuri Foreman Zab Judah Dmitry Salita Barney Aaron (Young), English-born US lightweight, Hall of Fame[46] Abe Attell ("The Little Hebrew"), US, world champion featherweight, Hall of Fame[8] Monte Attell ("The Knob Hill Terror"), US, bantamweight[47] Max Baer ("Madcap Maxie"), US, world champion heavyweight. Wore a Star of David on his trunks; inducted into the International Jewish Sports Hall of Fame. Hall of Fame/[48] Benny Bass ("Little Fish"), US, world champion featherweight & world champion junior lightweight, Hall of Fame[8] Fabrice Benichou, France, world champion super bantamweight[34] Jack Kid Berg (Judah Bergman), England, world champion junior welterweight, wore a Star of David on his trunks, Hall of Fame[8] Maxie Berger, Canada, wore a Star of David on his trunks[49] Samuel Berger, US, Olympic champion heavyweight[8] Jack Bernstein (also "John Dodick", "Kid Murphy", and "Young Murphy"), US, world champion junior lightweight[8] Nathan "Nat" Bor, US, Olympic bronze lightweight[26] Mushy Callahan (Vincente Sheer), US, world champion light welterweight[47] Joe Choynski ("Chrysanthemum Joe"), US, heavyweight, Hall of Fame[8][50] Robert Cohen, French & Algerian, world champion bantamweight[8] Al "Bummy" Davis (Abraham Davidoff), US, welterweight & lightweight, wore a Star of David on his trunks[47] Louis "Red" Deutsch, US, heavyweight, later famous as the proprietor of the Tube Bar in Jersey City, NJ and inspiration for Moe Szyslak on "The Simpsons" Carolina Duer ("The Turk"), Argentine, WBO world champion super flyweight and bantamweight[51] John "Jackie" Fields (Jacob Finkelstein), US, world champion welterweight & Olympic champion featherweight, Hall of Fame[8] Hagar Finer, Israel, WIBF champion bantamweight[52] Yuri Foreman, Belarusian-born Israeli US middleweight and World Boxing Association champion super welterweight[53] György Gedó, Hungary, Olympic champion light flyweight[41] Abe Goldstein, US, world champion bantamweight[54] Ruby Goldstein ("Ruby the Jewel of the Ghetto"), US, welterweight, wore a Star of David on his trunks[8] Roman Greenberg ("The Lion from Zion"), Israel, International Boxing Organization's Intercontinental champion heavyweight[53] Stéphane Haccoun, France, featherweight, super featherweight, and junior lightweight[55][56] Alphonse Halimi ("La Petite Terreur"), France, world champion bantamweight[8] Harry Harris ("The Human Hairpin"), US, world champion bantamweight[8] Gary Jacobs, Scottish, British, Commonwealth, and European (EBU) champion welterweight[57] Ben Jeby (Morris Jebaltowsky), US, world champion middleweight[47] Yoel Judah, US, 3x world champion kickboxer and boxer & trainer[58] Zab Judah ("Super"), US, world champion junior welterweight & world champion welterweight (Converted to Christianity)[58][59][60][61] Louis Kaplan ("Kid Kaplan"), Russian-born US, world champion featherweight, Hall of Fame[8][50] Solly Krieger ("Danny Auerbach"), US, world champion middleweight[8] Julie Kogon US, 1947 New England Lightweight Champion. Inducted into the Connecticut Boxing Hall of Fame. Benny Leonard (Benjamin Leiner; "The Ghetto Wizard"), US, world champion lightweight, Hall of Fame[8] Battling Levinsky (Barney Lebrowitz), US, world champion light heavyweight, Hall of Fame[8] King Levinsky (Harry Kraków), US, heavweight, also known as Kingfish Levinsky[8] Harry Lewis (Harry Besterman), US, world champion welterweight[47] Ted "Kid" Lewis (Gershon Mendeloff), England, world champion welterweight, Hall of Fame[8] Sammy Luftspring, Canada, Canadian champion welterweight, Canada's Sports Hall of Fame[47] Saoul Mamby, US, world champion junior welterweight[47] Al McCoy (Alexander Rudolph), US, world champion middleweight[8] Daniel Mendoza, England, world champion heavyweight, Hall of Fame[8] Jacob Michaelsen, Denmark, Olympic bronze heavyweight[26] Samuel Mosberg, US, Olympic champion lightweight[8] Bob Olin, US, world champion light heavyweight[62] Victor Perez ("Young"), Tunisian, world champion flyweight[8] Harold Reitman ("The Boxing Doctor"), professional heavyweight that fought while working as surgeon, Golden Gloves champion.[63] Charlie Phil Rosenberg ("Charles Green"), US, world champion bantamweight[8] Dana Rosenblatt ("Dangerous"), US, world champion middleweight[64] Maxie Rosenbloom ("Slapsie"), US, world champion light heavyweight, wore a Star of David on his trunks, Hall of Fame[8] Barney Ross (Dov-Ber Rasofsky), US, world champion lightweight & junior welterweight, Hall of Fame[8] Mike Rossman (Michael Albert DiPiano; "The Jewish Bomber"), US, world champion light heavyweight, wore Star of David on trunks[64] Shamil Sabirov, Russia, Olympic champion light flyweight[26] Dmitry Salita ("Star of David"), US, North American Boxing Association champion light welterweight[65] Isadore "Corporal Izzy" Schwartz ("The Ghetto Midget"), US, world champion flyweight[8] Al Singer ("The Bronx Beauty"), US, world champion lightweight[47] "Lefty" Lew Tendler, US, bantamweight, lightweight, and welterweight, wore a Star of David on his trunks, Hall of Fame[8] Sid Terris ("Ghost of the Ghetto"), US, lightweight, wore a Star of David on his trunks[54] Matt Wels, England, champion of Great Britain lightweight and world champion welterweight Canoeing[edit] Jessica Fox Shaun Rubenstein László Fábián, Hungary, sprint canoer, Olympic champion (K-2 10,000 meter), 4x world champion (3x K-2 10,000 meter and 1x K-4 10,000 meter) and one silver (K-4 10,000 meter)[26] Imre Farkas, Hungary, sprint canoer, 2x Olympic bronze (C-2 1,000 and 10,000 meter)[66] Jessica Fox, French-born Australian, slalom canoer, Olympic silver (K-1 slalom), world championships bronze (C-1)[67] Myriam Fox-Jerusalmi, France, slalom canoer, Olympic bronze (K-1 slalom), 5 golds at ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships (2x K-1, 3x K-1 team)[41] Klára Fried-Bánfalvi, Hungary, sprint canoer, Olympic bronze (K-2 500 m), world champion (K-2 500 m)[26] Leonid Geishtor, USSR (Belarus), sprint canoer, Olympic champion (Canadian pairs 1,000-meter)[41] Joe Jacobi, US, slalom canoer, Olympic champion (Canadian slalom pairs)[41] Michael Kolganov, Soviet (Uzbek)-born Israeli, sprint canoer, world champion, Olympic bronze (K-1 500-meter)[41] Anna Pfeffer, Hungary, sprint canoer, Olympic 2x silver (K-2 500 m), bronze (K-1 500 m); world champion (K-2 500 m), silver (K-4 500 m), 2x bronze (K-2 500)[26] Naum Prokupets, Moldovan-born Soviet, sprint canoer, Olympic bronze (C-2 1,000-meter), gold (C-2 10,000-meter) at ICF Canoe Sprint World Championships[41] Leon Rotman, Romanian, sprint canoer, 2x Olympic champion (C-1 10,000 meter, C-1 1,000-meter) and bronze (C-1 1,000-meter), 14 national titles[41] Shaun Rubenstein, South Africa, canoer, World Marathon champion 2006[68] Cricket[edit] Michael Klinger Ben Ashkenazi, Australia (Victorian Bushrangers) Ali Bacher, South Africa, batsman and administrator (relative of Adam Bacher)[69] Mike Barnard, England, cricketer[69] Mark Bott, England, cricketer[70] Stevie Eskinazi, South African born, Australian raised, English wicketkeeper Mark Fuzes. Australian all rounder played for Hong Kong. Father Peter Fuzes kept goal for Australian Soccer team (see)[71] Dennis Gamsy, South Africa, Test wicket-keeper[72] Darren Gerard, England, cricketer[73] Norman Gordon, South Africa, fast bowler[69] Steven Herzberg, English-born Australian, cricketer[74] Sid Kiel, South Africa, opening batsman (Western Province)[75] Michael Klinger, Australia, batsman (Western Warriors)[69] Leonard "Jock" Livingston, Australia, cricketer[69] Bev Lyon, England, cricketer[69] Dar Lyon, England, cricketer (brother of Bev)[69] Greg, Jason, and Lara Molins, two brothers and a cousin from the same Irish family[74] Jon Moss, Australia, allrounder (Victorian Bushrangers)[69] John Raphael, England, batsman[69] Marshall Rosen, NSW Australia, cricketer and selector[76] Lawrence Seeff, South Africa, batsmen[77] Maurice Sievers, Australia, lower order batsman and fast-medium bowler[69] Bensiyon Songavkar, India, cricketer, MVP of 2009 Maccabiah Games cricket tournament[78] Fred Susskind, South Africa, Test batsman[69] Fred Trueman, England, English test fast bowler (a lifelong Christian)[69] Julien Wiener, Australia, Test cricketer[69] Mandy Yachad, South Africa, Test cricketer[69] Equestrian[edit] Margie Goldstein-Engle Robert Dover, US, 4x Olympic bronze, 1x world championship bronze (dressage)[79] Margie Goldstein-Engle, US, world championship silver, Pan American Games gold, silver, and bronze (jumping)[80] Edith Master, US, Olympic bronze (dressage)[26] Fencing[edit] Helene Mayer Soren Thompson Henri Anspach, Belgium (épée & foil), Olympic champion[26] Paul Anspach, Belgium (épée & foil), 2x Olympic champion[26] Norman Armitage (Norman Cohn), US (sabre), 17x US champion, Olympic bronze[26] Albert "Albie" Axelrod, US (foil); Olympic bronze, 4x US champion[8] Péter Bakonyi, Hungary (saber), Olympic 3x bronze[41] Cliff Bayer, US (foil); youngest US champion[37] Albert Bogen (Albert Bógathy), Austria (saber), Olympic silver[41] Tamir Bloom, US (épée); 2x US champion[37] Daniel Bukantz, US (foil); 4x US champion[37] Sergey Sharikov, Russia (saber), 2x Olympic champion, silver, bronze[26] Yves Dreyfus, France (épée), Olympic bronze, French champion[26] Ilona Elek, Hungary (saber), 2x Olympic champion[26] Boaz Ellis, Israel (foil), 5x Israeli champion[34] Siegfried "Fritz" Flesch, Austria (sabre), Olympic bronze[26] Dr. Dezsö Földes, Hungary (saber), 2x Olympic champion[26] Dr. Jenö Fuchs, Hungary (saber), 4x Olympic champion[81] Támas Gábor, Hungary (épée), Olympic champion[8] János Garay, Hungary (saber), Olympic champion, silver, bronze, killed by the Nazis[8] Dr. Oskar Gerde, Hungary (saber), 2x Olympic champion, killed by the Nazis[26] Dr. Sándor Gombos, Hungary (saber), Olympic champion[62] Vadim Gutzeit, Ukraine (saber), Olympic champion[82] Johan Harmenberg, Sweden (épée), Olympic champion[26] Delila Hatuel, Israel (foil), Olympian, ranked # 9 in world[83] Lydia Hatuel-Zuckerman, Israel (foil), 6x Israeli champion[84][85] Dr. Otto Herschmann, Austria (saber), Olympic silver[26] Emily Jacobson, US (saber), NCAA champion[86] Sada Jacobson, US (saber), ranked # 1 in the world, Olympic silver, 2x bronze[86] Allan Jay, British (épée & foil), Olympic 2x silver, world champion[26] Endre Kabos, Hungary (saber), 3x Olympic champion, bronze[26] Roman Kantor, Poland (épée), Nordic champion & Soviet champion, killed by the Nazis[26] Dan Kellner, US (foil), US champion[86] Byron Krieger, US[87] Grigory Kriss, Soviet (épée), Olympic champion, 2x silver[26] Allan Kwartler, US (saber), 3x Pan American Games champion[10] Alexandre Lippmann, France (épée), 2x Olympic champion, 2x silver, bronze[8] Helene Mayer, Germany & US (foil), Olympic champion[26] Ljubco Georgievski ????? ??????????? Kiro Gligorov ???? ???????? Nikola Gruevski ?????? ???????? Gjorge Ivanov ????? ?????? Gordana Jankuloska ??????? ?????????? Zoran Jolevski ????? ???????? Srgjan Kerim ????? ????? Lazar Koliševski ????? ?????????? Hari Kostov ???? ?????? Trifun Kostovski ?????? ????????? Ilinka Mitreva ?????? ??????? Lazar Mojsov ????? ?????? Tito Petkovski ???? ????????? Lui Temelkovski ??? ??????????? Boris Trajkovski ????? ?????????? Vasil Tupurkovski ????? ??????????? Zoran Zaev ????? ???? Partisans World War II freedom fighters edit Mirce Acev ????? ???? Mihajlo Apostolski ????j?? ?????????? Cede Filipovski Dame ???? ?????????? ???? Blagoj Jankov Muceto ?????? ?????? ?????? Orce Nikolov ???? ??????? Strašo Pindžur ?????? ?????? Hristijan Todorovski Karpoš ????????? ?????????? ?????? Revolutionaries edit Yordan Piperkata ?????? ???????? ????????? Goce Delcev ???? ????? Petar Pop Arsov ????? ??? ????? Dame Gruev ???? ????? Jane Sandanski ???? ????????? Dimitar Pop Georgiev Berovski ??????? ??? ???????? ???????? Ilyo Voyvoda ???? ??? ?????????? Pere Tošev ???? ????? Pitu Guli ???? ???? Dimo Hadži Dimov ???? ???? ????? Hristo Uzunov ?????? ?????? Literature edit Gjorgji Abadžiev ????? ??????? Petre M Andreevski ????? ? ?????????? Maja Apostoloska ???? ??????????? Dimitrija Cupovski ????????? ???????? Jordan Hadži Konstantinov Džinot ?????? ???? ???????????? ????? Vasil Iljoski ????? ?????? Slavko Janevski ?????? ???????? Blaže Koneski ????? ??????? Risto Krle ????? ???? Vlado Maleski ????? ??????? Mateja Matevski ?????? ???????? Krste Misirkov ????? ????????? Kole Nedelkovski ???? ??????????? Olivera Nikolova Anton Panov ????? ????? Gjorche Petrov ????? ?????? Vidoe Podgorec ????? ???????? Aleksandar Prokopiev ?????????? ????????? Koco Racin ???? ????? Jovica Tasevski Eternijan ?????? ???????? ????????? Gane Todorovski ???? ?????????? Stevan Ognenovski ?????? ?????????? Music edit Classical music edit Composers edit Atanas Badev ?????? ????? Dimitrije Bužarovski ????????? ?????????? Kiril Makedonski ????? ?????????? Toma Prošev ???? ?????? Todor Skalovski ????? ????????? Stojan Stojkov ?????? ??????? Aleksandar Džambazov ?????????? ???????? Conductors edit Borjan Canev ?????? ????? Instrumentalists edit Pianists Simon Trpceski ????? ???????? Opera singers edit Blagoj Nacoski ?????? ??????? Boris Trajanov ????? ???????? Popular and folk music edit Composers edit Darko Dimitrov ????? ???????? Slave Dimitrov ????? ???????? Jovan Jovanov ????? ??????? Ilija Pejovski ????? ???????? Musicians edit Bodan Arsovski ????? ???????? Goran Trajkoski ????? ????????? Ratko Dautovski ????? ????????? Kiril Džajkovski ????? ????????? Tale Ognenovski ???? ?????????? Vlatko Stefanovski ?????? ??????????? Stevo Teodosievski ????? ???????????? Aleksandra Popovska ?????????? ???????? Singers and Bands edit Lambe Alabakoski ????? ?????????? Anastasia ????????? Arhangel ???????? Kristina Arnaudova ???????? ????????? Kaliopi Bukle ??????? Dani Dimitrovska ???? ??????????? Riste Tevdoski ????? ???????? Karolina Goceva ???????? ?????? Vaska Ilieva ????? ?????? Andrijana Janevska ????????? ???????? Vlado Janevski ????? ???????? Jovan Jovanov ????? ??????? Leb i sol ??? ? ??? Aleksandar Makedonski ?????????? ?????????? Elvir Mekic ????? ????? Mizar ????? Jasmina Mukaetova ??????? ????e???? The Malagasy French Malgache are the ethnic group that forms nearly the entire population of Madagascar They are divided into two subgroups the "Highlander" Merina Sihanaka and Betsileo of the central plateau around Antananarivo Alaotra Ambatondrazaka and Fianarantsoa and the "coastal dwellers" elsewhere in the country This division has its roots in historical patterns of settlement The original Austronesian settlers from Borneo arrived between the third and tenth centuries and established a network of principalities in the Central Highlands region conducive to growing the rice they had carried with them on their outrigger canoes Sometime later a large number of settlers arrived from East Africa and established kingdoms along the relatively unpopulated coastlines The difference in ethnic origins remains somewhat evident between the highland and coastal regions In addition to the ethnic distinction between highland and coastal Malagasy one may speak of a political distinction as well Merina monarchs in the late th and early th century united the Merina principalities and brought the neighboring Betsileo people under their administration first They later extended Merina control over the majority of the coastal areas as well The military resistance and eventual defeat of most of the coastal communities assured their subordinate position vis à vis the Merina Betsileo alliance During the th and th centuries the French colonial administration capitalized on and further exacerbated these political inequities by appropriating existing Merina governmental infrastructure to run their colony This legacy of political inequity dogged the people of Madagascar after gaining independence in candidates ethnic and regional identities have often served to help or hinder their success in democratic elections Within these two broad ethnic and political groupings the Malagasy were historically subdivided into specifically named ethnic groups who were primarily distinguished from one another on the basis of cultural practices These were namely agricultural hunting or fishing practices construction style of dwellings music hair and clothing styles and local customs or taboos the latter known in the Malagasy language as fady citation needed The number of such ethnic groups in Madagascar has been debated The practices that distinguished many of these groups are less prevalent in the st century than they were in the past But many Malagasy are proud to proclaim their association with one or several of these groups as part of their own cultural identity "Highlander" ethnic groups Merina Sihanaka Betsileo Zafimaniry Coastal ethnic groups Antaifasy or Antefasy Antaimoro or Temoro or Antemoro Antaisaka or Antesaka Antambahoaka Antandroy or Tandroy Antankarana Antanosy or Tanosy Academia edit Afifi al Akiti Khasnor Johan historian Khoo Kay Kim Jomo Kwame Sundaram Danny Quah Harith Ahmad Architects edit Main article List of Malaysian architects Artists edit Main article List of Malaysian artists Business edit Tan Sri Syed Mokhtar Al Bukhary born Tan Sri Dato Loh Boon Siew – Tan Sri Jeffrey Cheah Tan Sri William Cheng Dato Choong Chin Liang born Tan Sri Dato Tony Fernandes born Lim Goh Tong – Tan Sri Tiong Hiew King Tan Sri Teh Hong Piow born Chung Keng Quee – Tan Sri Ananda Krishnan born Robert Kuok born Tan Sri Quek Leng Chan born Shoba Purushothaman Shah Hakim Zain Halim Saad Tan Sri Mohd Saleh Sulong Tan Sri Vincent Tan born Lillian Too born Tan Sri Dr Francis Yeoh Tun Daim Zainuddin born Tan Sri Kong Hon Kong Designers edit Bernard Chandran fashion designer Jimmy Choo born shoe designer Poesy Liang born artist writer philanthropist jewellery designer industrial designer interior architect music composer Inventors edit Yi Ren Ng inventor of the Lytro Entertainers edit Yasmin Ahmad – film director Stacy Angie Francissca Peter born Jamal Abdillah born Sudirman Arshad – Loganathan Arumugam died Datuk David Arumugam Alleycats Awal Ashaari Alvin Anthons born Asmawi bin Ani born Ahmad Azhar born Ning Baizura born Kasma Booty died Marion Caunter host of One In A Million and the TV Quickie Ella born Erra Fazira born Sean Ghazi born Fauziah Latiff born Angelica Lee born Daniel Lee Chee Hun born Fish Leong born Sheila Majid born Amy Mastura born Mohamad Nasir Mohamad born Shathiyah Kristian born Meor Aziddin Yusof born Ah Niu born Dayang Nurfaizah born Shanon Shah born Siti Nurhaliza born Misha Omar born Hani Mohsin – Aziz M Osman born Azmyl Yunor born P Ramlee born Aziz Sattar born Fasha Sandha born Ku Nazhatul Shima Ku Kamarazzaman born Nicholas Teo born Pete Teo Penny Tai born Hannah Tan born Jaclyn Victor born Chef Wan Adira Suhaimi Michael Wong born Victor Wong born Dato Michelle Yeoh Hollywood actress born James Wan director of Hollywood films like several Saw films Insidious The Conjuring Fast and Furious born Ziana Zain born Zee Avi Shila Amzah Yunalis Zarai Zamil Idris born Military edit Leftenan Adnan – Warrior from mainland Malaya Antanum Warrior from Sabah Borneo Rentap Warrior from Sarawak Syarif Masahor Warrior from Sarawak Monsopiad Warrior from Sabah Borneo Haji Abdul Rahman Limbong Warrior from Telemong Terengganu Mat Salleh Warrior from Sabah Borneo Rosli Dhobi Warrior from Sarawak Politicians edit Parameswara founder of Sultanate of Malacca Tunku Abdul Rahman Putra Al Haj st Prime Minister of independent Malaya Tun Abdul Razak nd Prime Minister V T Sambanthan Founding Fathers of Malaysia along with Tunku Abdul Rahman and Tan Cheng Lock Tun Dato Sir Tan Cheng Lock Founder of MCA Tun Hussein Onn rd Prime Minister Mahathir Mohammad th Prime Minister Father of Modernisation Abdullah Ahmad Badawi th Prime Minister since Najib Tun Razak Current Prime Minister since Dato Seri Ong Ka Ting Dato Seri Anwar Ibrahim Dato Wan Hisham Wan Salleh Nik Aziz Nik Mat Raja Nong Chik Zainal Abidin Federal Territory and Urban Wellbeing Minister Wan Azizah Wan Ismail Karpal Singh Lim Kit Siang Lim Guan Eng Tengku Razaleigh Hamzah Religious edit Antony Selvanayagam Roman Catholic Bishop of the Diocese of Penang Anthony Soter Fernandez Archbishop Emeritus of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Kuala Lumpur and Bishop Emeritus of the Diocese of Penang Gregory Yong – Second Roman Catholic Archbishop of Singapore Tan Sri Datuk Murphy Nicholas Xavier Pakiam Metropolitan archbishop of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Kuala Lumpur president of the Catholic Bishops Conference of Malaysia Singapore and Brunei and publisher of the Catholic weekly newspaper The Herald Datuk Ng Moon Hing the fourth and current Anglican Bishop of West Malaysia Sportspeople edit Squash edit Datuk Nicol Ann David Ong Beng Hee Azlan Iskandar Low Wee Wern Badminton edit Chan Chong Ming men s doubles Dato Lee Chong Wei Chew Choon Eng men s doubles Wong Choong Hann Chin Eei Hui women s doubles Hafiz Hashim Roslin Hashim Wong Pei Tty women s doubles Choong Tan Fook men s doubles Lee Wan Wah men s doubles Koo Kien Keat men s doubles Tan Boon Heong men s doubles Retired edit Tan Aik Huang Eddy Choong Punch Gunalan Yap Kim Hock Foo Kok Keong Jalani Sidek Misbun Sidek Rashid Sidek Razif Sidek Cheah Soon Kit Lee Wan Wah Football soccer edit Brendan Gan Sydney FC Shaun Maloney Wigan Athletic Akmal Rizal Perak FA Kedah FA RC Strasbourg FCSR Haguenau Norshahrul Idlan Talaha Kelantan FA Khairul Fahmi Che Mat Kelantan FA Mohd Safiq Rahim Selangor FA Mohd Fadzli Saari Selangor FA PBDKT T Team FC SV Wehen Rudie Ramli Selangor FA PKNS F C SV Wehen Mohd Safee Mohd Sali Selangor FA Pelita Jaya Baddrol Bakhtiar Kedah FA Mohd Khyril Muhymeen Zambri Kedah FA Mohd Azmi Muslim Kedah FA Mohd Fadhli Mohd Shas Harimau Muda A FC ViOn Zlaté Moravce Mohd Irfan Fazail Harimau Muda A FC ViOn Zlaté Moravce Wan Zack Haikal Wan Noor Harimau Muda A FC ViOn Zlaté Moravce F C Ryukyu Nazirul Naim Che Hashim Harimau Muda A F C Ryukyu Khairul Izuan Abdullah Sarawak FA Persibo Bojonegoro PDRM FA Stanley Bernard Stephen Samuel Sabah FA Sporting Clube de Goa Nazmi Faiz Harimau Muda A SC Beira Mar Ahmad Fakri Saarani Perlis FA Atlético S C Chun Keng Hong Penang FA Chanthaburi F C Retired edit Serbegeth Singh owner founder of MyTeam Blackburn Rovers F C Global dvisor Mokhtar Dahari former Selangor FA and Malaysian player Lim Teong Kim former Hertha BSC player