Criminals edit Anabolic steroid use has been associated with an antisocial lifestyle involving various types of criminality Law enforcement edit Steroid abuse among law enforcement is considered a problem by some "It's a big problem and from the number of cases it's something we shouldn't ignore It's not that we set out to target cops but when we're in the middle of an active investigation into steroids there have been quite a few cases that have led back to police officers " says Lawrence Payne a spokesman for the United States Drug Enforcement Administration The FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin stated that “Anabolic steroid abuse by police officers is a serious problem that merits greater awareness by departments across the country" It is also believed that police officers across the United Kingdom "are using criminals to buy steroids and abuse their power for sexual gratification" which he claims to be a top risk factor for police corruption Professional wrestling edit Main article WWE § Wellness Program Following the murder suicide of Chris Benoit in the Oversight and Government Reform Committee investigated steroid usage in the wrestling industry The Committee investigated WWE and Total Nonstop Action Wrestling TNA asking for documentation of their companies' drug policies WWE CEO and Chairman Linda and Vince McMahon respectively both testified The documents stated that wrestlers—roughly percent—had tested positive for drug use since most commonly for steroids Economics edit Main article Illegal trade in anabolic steroids

Several large buckets containing tens of thousands of anabolic steroid vials confiscated by the DEA during "Operation Raw Deal" in Anabolic steroids are frequently produced in pharmaceutical laboratories but in nations where stricter laws are present they are also produced in small home made underground laboratories usually from raw substances imported from abroad In these countries the majority of steroids are obtained illegally through black market trade These steroids are usually manufactured in other countries and therefore must be smuggled across international borders As with most significant smuggling operations organized crime is involved In the late s the worldwide trade in illicit AAS increased significantly and authorities announced record captures on three continents In Finnish authorities announced a record seizure of million AAS tablets A year later the DEA seized million units of AAS in the largest U S seizure ever In the first three months of Australian customs reported a record seizures of AAS shipments In the U S Canada and Europe illegal steroids are sometimes purchased just as any other illegal drug through dealers who are able to obtain the drugs from a number of sources Illegal anabolic steroids are sometimes sold at gyms and competitions and through the mail but may also be obtained through pharmacists veterinarians and physicians In addition a significant number of counterfeit products are sold as anabolic steroids in particular via mail order from websites posing as overseas pharmacies In the U S black market importation continues from Mexico Thailand and other countries where steroids are more easily available as they are legal The Olympic Mascots Mandeville left and Wenlock right The official mascots for the Summer Olympic and Paralympic Games were unveiled on May Wenlock and Mandeville are animations depicting two drops of steel from a steelworks in Bolton They are named after Much Wenlock a town in Shropshire that holds a forerunner of the current Olympic Games and Stoke Mandeville a village in Buckinghamshire where a forerunner of the Paralympic Games was first held The writer Michael Morpurgo wrote the story concept for the mascots and an animation was produced Two stories have been created about the mascots Out Of A Rainbow and Adventures On A Rainbow Creative Review magazine liked the mascots but elsewhere their design was greeted with some disdain One columnist jested that they were the product of a "drunken one night stand between a Teletubby and a Dalek" Others have compared them to Izzy the much disparaged mascot of the Atlanta Summer Olympics Still others have likened them to Kang and Kodos from The Simpsons However the mascots' creators claim that young people find the duo appealing Chariots of Fire edit The Best Picture Oscar–winning film Chariots of Fire which tells the story of two British athletes in the Olympics was a recurring theme in promotions for the Olympics A digitally re mastered version of Chariots of Fire was released on July and screened in over UK cinemas as part of the celebrations and a stage adaptation ran in London theatres from May to January The film's theme tune was performed during the Opening Ceremony by the London Symphony Orchestra conducted by Simon Rattle The performance was accompanied by a comedic skit by Rowan Atkinson which included the opening beach running footage from the film A new orchestration of the film's theme tune was played during each medal presentation of the Games Sponsors edit Main article Summer Olympics marketing § Sponsors Ambox current red svg This section is outdated Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information October LOCOG and the IOC agreed sponsorship deals with several companies each assigned to one of four categories worldwide tier one tier two and tier three The worldwide partners are Acer Atos Coca Cola Dow General Electric McDonald's Omega SA Panasonic Procter & Gamble Samsung and Visa The companies provided £ billion of funding altogether allocated evenly between the IOC and LOCOG Controversies edit Main article Controversies at the Summer Olympics During the lead up to the Games there were controversies over sponsorship the athletes' use of social media and several political issues After a complicated lottery process thousands of people failed to secure seats for the events they wanted but a large number of empty seats were observed throughout the games even at some of the most popular events There was speculation that this was due to a failure of corporate sponsors to make use of tickets they had received During the Games eight competitors in the badminton women's doubles were disqualified for "not using best efforts" when they tried to lose matches in the group stage to obtain more favourable fixtures in the knockout rounds A number of results in boxing gymnastics and judo were overturned by officials after initial decisions were appealed against Drug testing edit Main article Use of performance enhancing drugs in the Olympic Games § London It was announced before the Summer Games that half of all the competitors would be tested for drugs with scientists set to take samples between the start of the Games and the end of the Paralympic Games Every competitor who won a medal was also tested The Olympic laboratory tested up to samples every day for more than prohibited substances Albanian weightlifter Hysen Pulaku was the first athlete to be tested positive Gymnast Luiza Galiulina and runner Tameka Williams were also suspended Nadzeya Ostapchuk was the first athlete to be stripped of a medal when she tested positive for metenolone Valerie Adams was therefore awarded the gold medal in shot put Two female swimmers stand on a wooden pool deck wearing bathing suits that have short sleeves and while full bodied look like shorts go down to just above the knee Fanny Durrack left and Mina Wylie Australian swimmers in Fanny Durack was Australia's first female gold medalist She earned this medal at the Summer Olympics where she represented a combined team of Australia and New Zealand known as the Australasian team Participation costs for Australian athletes costs like travel to and lodging at early Olympic games were expected to be paid by the local sport federation sponsoring the athlete In early Australian swimming history as it pertains to the Olympics there was an attempt to prevent women from participating by male Australian swimming administrators See also edit Portal icon Women's sport portal Softball at the Summer Olympics Netball and the Olympic Movement Women's sports edit Olympic recognition edit Netball is an amazing sport and it was very sad for us for it not to be in the Olympic Games so it would be amazing if we could get it in next time round It would be brilliant for the girls coming through to get that opportunity to play at the Olympics because it is the sporting pinnacle if you can achieve that goal Tamsin Greenway England wing attack Throughout the history of the Olympics sports popular exclusively with women or that have been very popular with women have been excluded The situation extends beyond the popular women's sport of netball to women's cycling which was excluded for many years despite having world championships for women being organised by It extends to field hockey a sport included for men as early as but not competed by women until Lawn bowls is a popular women's sport that has been included in the Commonwealth Games for many years but has not made the Olympic program While primarily a sport for women netball allows for mixed gendered teams but the Olympics do not allow mixed gendered team sports note The issues facing netball are part of a larger problem involving female participation in the Olympics At the Summer Olympics in Barcelona there were sports for men to compete in but only sports for women and sports for both men and women At the Summer Olympics there were still sports that women were excluded from participating in such as boxing wrestling and baseball softball was included as a women only event The issue of male over representation in terms of total number of sports and athletes is structural In the United Kingdom for example more male athletes than female athletes received financial support Sports officials rationalised this uneven distribution of funding by claiming that there are more opportunities for men to win on the highest level than there are comparable opportunities for women The importance of netball being included as a competition sport in the Summer Olympics has been compared to softball and the benefits that the sport derived from Olympic inclusion This included additional media attention and television coverage especially during Olympic years Olympic recognition plays an important part in getting sponsorship for local competitions around the world It also plays an important role in providing recognition to and opportunities for females that may not be available otherwise The selection of women's teams sport in the Olympics may not match with interest levels in a country In Australia for example total women and girls play basketball hockey soccer softball and volleyball This compares to women and girls who play netball Since all new sports asking to be included in the Olympic program must feature women’s events The Olympic Games in London were the first Olympics in which women competed in all sports in the program Funding edit The lack of Olympic recognition hampered the globalisation of the game in developing countries because the Olympic Solidarity Movement provides access to funding for these nations through the International Olympic Committee In some countries such as Tanzania the lack of access to Olympic funding cut off other funding options such funding by British Council With official recognition funding from the IOC the Olympic Solidarity Movement and the British Council became available to cover costs for travel to international competitions For some nations without that assistance trying to maintain international calibre teams was difficult Olympic recognition brought money for development into the sport In IFNA received a grant of US from the IOC for development IFNA was given an additional US a year until by the Association of IOC Recognised International Sports ARISF Beyond access to funds from the International Olympic Committee Olympic recognition is often a requirement for getting funding from state and national sporting bodies and state and federal governments This has been the case in Australia and British Columbia Canada In the Australian Sports Commission and the Office of the Status of Women identified five criteria for obtaining federal funding One of these was "status as an Olympic sport and its size by registrations " note In British Columbia one of the guidelines says that in order to receive funding "The sport must be on the program for either the or Canada Games and or the next scheduled recognized International Multi Sport Games Olympics Paralympics Pan American or Commonwealth References Biographical elements edit Before the Olympics edit Coubertin believed "that contact with women's athletics is bad for the male athlete and that these athletics should be excluded from the Olympic programme" Stamata Revithi was born in Syros in Records of her life from show that she was living in poverty in Piraeus in At that point she had given birth to two children a son who died in aged seven and another child who was seventeen months old by the time of the Olympics According to Olympic historian Athanasios Tarasouleas Revithi who was blonde and thin with large eyes looked much older than her age Revithi believed that she could gain employment in Athens and so walked there from her home—a distance of kilometers mi Her journey took place several days prior to the Olympic marathon a special race of kilometers mi invented as part of the athletics program and based on Michel Bréal's idea of a race from the city of Marathon to the Pnyx Bréal took inspiration from Pheidippides who according to legend ran the distance from Marathon to Athens to announce the Greek victory over Persia at the Battle of Marathon and died immediately after giving his message En route to Athens Revithi encountered a male runner along the road He gave her money and advised her to run the marathon to become famous and consequently earn money or more easily find a job After this discussion Revithi decided to run the race she had enjoyed long distance running as a child and believed she could beat the male competitors The Olympic Games were the first held in the Modern era and the most important international multi sport event Greece had ever hosted The rules of the Games generally excluded women from competition Influenced by both his times—in the Victorian era women were considered to be inferior to men —and his admiration for the ancient Olympic Games when only men were allowed to participate in the events Baron Pierre de Coubertin the visionary of the modern Olympic Games was not in favour of women's participation in the Olympic Games or in sports generally He believed that a woman's greatest achievement would be to encourage her sons to be distinguished in sports and to applaud a man's effort marathon edit Revithi arrived at the race location the small village of Marathon on Thursday April O S March where the athletes had already assembled for the following day's race She attracted the attention of the reporters and was warmly greeted by Marathon's mayor who sheltered her in his house She answered the reporters' questions and was quick witted when a male runner from Chalandri teased her predicting that when she entered the Stadium there would be no crowds left Revithi retorted that he should not insult women since male Greek athletes had already been humiliated by the Americans Spiridon Louis entering the Panathinaiko Stadium at the end of the marathon Only of the male runners finished the marathon one day before Revithi's race Prior to the start of the race on the morning of Friday April O S March the old priest of Marathon Ioannis Veliotis was scheduled to say a prayer for the athletes in the church of Saint John Veliotis refused to bless Revithi because she was not an officially recognized athlete The organizing committee ultimately refused her entry into the race Officially she was rejected because the deadline for participation had expired however as Olympic historians David Martin and Roger Gynn point out the real problem was her gender According to Tarasouleas the organizers promised that she would compete with a team of American women in another race in Athens which never took place Beginning at the following day Revithi ran the marathon course on her own Before starting she had the town's only teacher the mayor and the city magistrate sign a statement testifying to the time she departed from the village She ran the race at a steady pace and reached Parapigmata the place where the Evangelismos Hospital stands today near the Hilton Athens at ½ hours Revithi was not allowed to enter Panathinaiko Stadium—her race was stopped in Parapigmata by a few Greek military officers who she asked to sign her handwritten report to certify her time of arrival in Athens She stated to the reporters that she wanted to meet Timoleon Philimon the General Secretary of the Hellenic Olympic Committee to present her case Historians believe that she intended to present her documents to the Hellenic Olympic Committee in the hopes that they would recognize her achievement Neither her reports nor documents from the Hellenic Olympic Committee have been discovered to provide corroboration Aftermath edit There is no account of Revithi's life following the marathon Although some newspapers printed articles about her story in the build up to the marathon these reports did not follow up on her life after the race It is not known whether she met Philimon or if she ever found a job As Tarasouleas stated "Stamata Revithi was lost in the dust of history" Violet Piercy of the United Kingdom was the first woman to complete an officially timed marathon race she clocked a time of hours and minutes in a British race on October Women were finally allowed to run the Olympic marathon at the Summer Olympics when American Joan Benoit won the inaugural race in a time of hours and minutes Melpomene edit Painting of the Muse Melpomene by Edward Simmons Thomas Jefferson Building Washington D C According to certain modern Olympic historians and journalists Melpomene and Revithi are the same person and the Greek woman was attributed the name of the Muse In March a French language newspaper in Athens the Messager d'Athènes reported that there was "talk of a woman who had enrolled as a participant in the Marathon race In the test run which she completed on her own she took ½ hours to run the distance of sic kilometres which separates Marathon from Athens " Later that year Franz Kémény a founding International Olympic Committee member from Hungary wrote in German that "indeed a lady Miss Melpomene completed the kilometres marathon in ½ hours and requested an entry into the Olympic Games competition This was reportedly denied by the commission " According to Martin and Gynn "a peculiarity here is why there is no first name for Melpomene" The Messager report faded into obscurity for about years before it was revived in in an issue of Der Leichtathlet Olympic historian Karl Lennartz contends that two women ran the marathon in and that the name "Melpomene" was confirmed by both Kémény and Alfréd Hajós two time Olympic swim champion of Lennartz presents the following account a young woman named Melpomene wanted to run the race and completed the distance in ½ hours at the end of February or the beginning of March The organizing committee however did not allow her to run and the newspaper Akropolis criticized the committee for its decision The Olympic Marathon took place on April O S March and another female runner Stamata Revithi took ½ hours to run the course on April O S March The newspapers Asti New Aristophanes and Atlantida reported this on April O S March However Tarasouleas argues that no contemporary press reports in Greek newspapers mention Melpomene by name while the name Revithi appears many times Tarasouleas suggests that Melpomene and Revithi are the same person and Martin and Green argue that "a contemporary account referring to Revithi as a well known marathon runner could explain the earlier run by a woman over the marathon course—this was by Revithi herself not Melpomene" The daily Athens newspaper Estia of April O S March refers to "the strange woman who having run a few days ago in the Marathon as a try out intends to compete the day after tomorrow Today she came to our offices and said 'should my shoes hinder me I will remove them on the way and continue barefoot' " Moreover Tarasouleas notes that on March O S March another local newspaper indicated that a woman and her baby had registered to run the marathon but again her name is not mentioned Trying to resolve the mystery Tarasouleas asserts that "perhaps Revithi had two names or perhaps for reasons unknown she was attributed During these inaugural Olympics winners were given a silver medal an olive branch and a diploma while runners up received a copper medal laurel branch and diploma The IOC has retroactively assigned gold silver and bronze medals to the three best placed athletes in each event to comport with more recent traditions To sort this table by nation total medal count or any other column click on the Sort both gif icon next to the column title Key Host nation Greece Rank Nation Gold Silver Bronze Total United States USA Greece GRE Germany GER France FRA Great Britain GBR Hungary HUN Austria AUT Australia AUS Denmark DEN Switzerland SUI Mixed team ZZX Total NOCs Medals of the Games Silver first place medal with the face of Zeus his hand holding a globe surmounted by winged Victory A copper medal was given those in second place The reverse features the Acropolis and in Greek "International Olympic Games in Athens in " Obverse of the silver first place medal at a different angle showing further detail Female competitors edit Women were not allowed to compete at the Summer Olympics because de Coubertin felt that their inclusion would be "impractical uninteresting unaesthetic and incorrect" However one woman Stamata Revithi ran the marathon course on April the day after the men had run the official race Although she was not allowed to enter the stadium at the end of her race Revithi finished the marathon in about five hours and minutes and found witnesses to sign their names and verify the starting and finishing times Revithi intended to present this documentation to the Hellenic Olympic Committee hoping that they would recognise her achievement Neither her reports nor documents from the Hellenic Olympic Committee have been discovered to provide corroboration Athens Pennsylvania pop Athens Township Bradford County Pennsylvania pop Athens Township Crawford County Pennsylvania pop Athens Tennessee pop Athens Texas pop Athens Vermont pop Athens West Virginia pop Athens Wisconsin pop Canada Canada Athens Township Ontario pop Costa Rica Costa Rica Atenas pop Atenas canton pop Germany Germany Athenstedt Saxony Anhalt pop Honduras Honduras Atenas De San Cristóbal Atlántida Italy Italy Atena Lucana Province of Salerno Campania pop Atina Province of Frosinone Lazio pop Poland Poland Ateny Podlaskie Voivodeship pop Ukraine Ukraine Afini Zoria – ???? Donetsk pop Paul Philippot ICCROM Victor Pimentel Peru Harold Plenderleith United Kingdom & ICCROM Deoclecio Redig de Campos Vatican Jean Sonnier France Francois Sorlin France Eustathios Stikas Greece Mrs Gertrud Tripp Austria Jan Zachwatowicz Poland Mustafa S Zbiss Tunisia Available languages edit The original document was published in English and French Today the text is available in different languages including Arabic Indonesian Bulgarian Catalan Czech Danish Dutch Flemish Estonian Finnish Georgian German Greek Hebrew Hindi Hungarian Italian Japanese Lithuanian Portuguese Romanian Russian Sinhalese Spanish Swedish Thai Turkish Ukrainian Opinions edit The Venice Charter is the most influential document on conservation that is still continuing to be valid since However the following aspects are not covered in the Venice Charter The concept of site which also applies to historic landscapes and gardens The concept of reversibility in restoration The social and financial issues The following years after the publishing the purpose of the charter was actualized in between the specialists and a number of symposiums took place in order to improve the common understandings and awareness of the people who are intensively involved in the conservation and restoration works of the historic buildings However majority of the participants were from Europe therefore the applications varied according to social economic and cultural conditions as well as technical qualifications It is also pointed out that there are translation mistakes and misunderstandings deriving from it Beginning with the World Heritage Convention some of the limited explanations in the Venice Charter were revised The understanding of cultural heritage which was expressed as historic monuments was categorized as monuments groups of buildings and sites Later on The Nara Document on Authenticity carried out the responsibility to clarify the authenticity related issues which were expressed in the articles and of the Venice Charter In the Naples ICOMOS meeting on November the question ‘Should there be a review of the Venice Charter ’ was discussed with participation of Raymound Lemaire the reporter of the Venice Charter in Thirty years after the Venice Charter Lemaire declared that Charters are fashionable They are considered to contribute to directing action However they never contain more than the minimum on which the majority has agreed Only exceptionally do they cover the whole of the issue which concerns them This is the case with the Venice Charter and he continued with his opinions about the present understanding of monument and restoration He pointed out the necessity of a new document or an effective adaptation with consideration of the need to be addressed with caution and wisdom with respect for all cultures and above all with ethical and intellectual discipline Even though the Venice Charter is being criticized and planned to be rewritten with its advises it has served for its purpose since it was first drawn up The Charter deserves to be respected and reviewed as a historic document that gives a reference point for the conservation and restoration of the monuments and Architectural conservator Focus specifically on the physical conservation of building materials Architectural historian historian Primarily researches and writes statements expressing the historical significance of sites Historic preservation planner Most are employed by local county state or federal government planning agencies to administer tax abatement programs ensure compliance with local ordinances and state and Federal legislation and conduct design reviews to ensure that proposed projects will not harm historic and archaeological resources At the state level they are known as a State Historic Preservation Officer while at other levels of government they may be known as a Federal or Tribal Historic Preservation Officer Some may also serve as consultants to local governments conducting Section reviews in accordance with the National Historic Preservation Act of Preservation architect Design and develop architectural conservation plans and work specifications in consultation with Engineers Historians and Planners ensuring compliance with local design guidelines to protect sensitive historic building fabric Most are employed by private architecture firms though some find work with government agencies Preservation craftsperson traditional trades practitioner Employs knowledge of traditional building techniques and contemporary conservation technologies to complete the conservation repair or restoration of historic buildings Preservation engineer Work with Architects to devise conservation solutions of a structural or material specific nature Most are employed by private architecture and or engineering firms Public historian resource interpreters Most are employed by government agencies and private foundations to interpret the significance of historic resources for the general public Historic site administrator Non profit sector careers Engage in a variety of activities concerned with historic preservation advocacy easements and private foundations at the local regional statewide or national levels Professional organisations edit American Institute for Conservation American Institute of Architects American Planning Association International Council on Monuments and Sites Preservation Trades Network Society of Architectural Historians National Trust English Heritage Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings Landmark Trust A cabinetmaker is a carpenter who does fine and detailed work specializing in the making of cabinets made from wood wardrobes dressers storage chests and other furniture designed for storage A ship's carpenter specializes in shipbuilding maintenance repair techniques and carpentry specific to nautical needs in addition to many other on board tasks usually the term refers to a carpenter who has a post on a specific ship Steel warships as well as wooden ones need ship's carpenters especially for making emergency repairs in the case of battle or storm damage A shipwright builds wooden ships on land A cooper is someone who makes barrels wooden staved vessels of a conical form of greater length than breadth A scenic carpenter builds and dismantles temporary scenery and sets in film making television and the theater A framer is a carpenter who builds the skeletal structure or wooden framework of buildings most often in the platform framing method Historically balloon framing was used until the s when fire safety concerns made platform framing inherently better A carpenter who specializes in building with timbers rather than studs is known as a timber framer and does traditional timber framing with wooden joints including mortise and tenon joinery post and beam work with metal connectors or pole building framing A luthier is someone who makes or repairs stringed instruments The word luthier comes from the French word for lute "luth" A log builder builds structures of stacked horizontal logs including houses barns churches fortifications and more A formwork carpenter creates the shuttering and falsework used in concrete construction In Japanese carpentry daiku is the simple term for carpenter a miya daiku temple carpenter performs the work of both architect and builder of shrines and temples and a sukiya daiku works on teahouse construction and houses Sashimono shi build furniture and tateguya do interior finishing work A restoration carpenter is a carpenter who works in historic building restoration someone who restores a structure to a former state A conservation carpenter works in architectural conservation known in the U S as a "preservation carpenter" who works in historic preservation someone who keeps structures from changing Green carpentry is the specialization in the use of environmentally friendly energy efficient and sustainable sources of building materials for use in construction projects They also practice building methods that require using less material and material that has the same structural soundness Main article Wood flooring icon This section requires expansion May Engineered wood edit Main article Engineered wood Engineered wood products glued building products "engineered" for application specific performance requirements are often used in construction and industrial applications Glued engineered wood products are manufactured by bonding together wood strands veneers lumber or other forms of wood fiber with glue to form a larger more efficient composite structural unit These products include glued laminated timber glulam wood structural panels including plywood oriented strand board and composite panels laminated veneer lumber LVL and other structural composite lumber SCL products parallel strand lumber and I joists Approximately million cubic meters of wood was consumed for this purpose in The trends suggest that particle board and fiber board will overtake plywood Wood unsuitable for construction in its native form may be broken down mechanically into fibers or chips or chemically into cellulose and used as a raw material for other building materials such as engineered wood as well as chipboard hardboard and medium density fiberboard MDF Such wood derivatives are widely used wood fibers are an important component of most paper and cellulose is used as a component of some synthetic materials Wood derivatives can also be used for kinds of flooring for example laminate flooring Furniture and utensils edit Wood has always been used extensively for furniture such as chairs and beds It is also used for tool handles and cutlery such as chopsticks toothpicks and other utensils like the wooden spoon Next generation wood products edit Further developments include new lignin glue applications recyclable food packaging rubber tire replacement applications anti bacterial medical agents and high strength fabrics or composites As scientists and engineers further learn and develop new techniques to extract various components from wood or alternatively to modify wood for example by adding components to wood new more advanced products will appear on the marketplace Moisture content electronic monitoring can also enhance next generation wood protection In the arts edit Main article Wood as a medium Stringed instrument bows are often made from brazilwood also called pernambuco Wood has long been used as an artistic medium It has been used to make sculptures and carvings for millennia Examples include the totem poles carved by North American indigenous people from conifer trunks often Western Red Cedar Thuja plicata and the Millennium clock tower now housed in the National Museum of Scotland in Edinburgh It is also used in woodcut printmaking and for engraving Certain types of musical instruments such as those of the violin family the guitar the clarinet and recorder the xylophone and the marimba are traditionally made mostly or entirely of wood The choice of wood may make a significant difference to the tone and resonant qualities of the instrument and tonewoods have widely differing properties ranging from the hard and dense african blackwood used for the bodies of clarinets to the light but resonant European spruce Picea abies which is traditionally used for the soundboards of violins The most valuable tonewoods such as the ripple sycamore Acer pseudoplatanus used for the backs of violins combine acoustic properties with decorative color and grain which enhance the appearance of the finished instrument Despite their collective name not all woodwind instruments are made entirely of wood The reeds used to play them however are usually made from Arundo donax a type of monocot cane plant Sports and recreational equipment edit Many types of sports equipment are made of wood or were constructed of wood in the past For example cricket bats are typically made of white willow The baseball bats which are legal for use in Major League Baseball are frequently made of ash wood or hickory and in recent years have been constructed from maple even though that wood is somewhat more fragile NBA courts have been traditionally made out of parquetry Many other types of sports and recreation equipment such as skis ice hockey sticks lacrosse sticks and archery bows were commonly made of wood in the past but have since been replaced with more modern materials such as aluminium fiberglass carbon fiber titanium and composite materials One noteworthy example of this trend is the golf club commonly known as the wood the head of which was traditionally made of persimmon wood in the early days of the game of golf but is now generally made of synthetic materials Bacterial degradation edit Little is known about the bacteria that degrade cellulose Symbiotic bacteria in Xylophaga may play a role in the degradation of sunken wood while bacteria such as Alphaproteobacteria Flavobacteria Actinobacteria Clostridia and Bacteroidetes have been detected in wood submerged The mixed type which occurs if the crack propagates at some spots in a cohesive and in others in an interfacial manner Mixed fracture surfaces can be characterised by a certain percentage of adhesive and cohesive areas The alternating crack path type which occurs if the cracks jump from one interface to the other This type of fracture appears in the presence of tensile pre stresses in the adhesive layer Fracture can also occur in the adherend if the adhesive is tougher than the adherend In this case the adhesive remains intact and is still bonded to one substrate and remnants of the other For example when one removes a price label the adhesive usually remains on the label and the surface This is cohesive failure If however a layer of paper remains stuck to the surface the adhesive has not failed Another example is when someone tries to pull apart Oreo cookies and all the filling remains on one side this is an adhesive failure rather than a cohesive failure Design of adhesive joints edit Modes of failure As a general design rule the material properties of the object need to be greater than the forces anticipated during its use i e geometry loads etc The engineering work will consist of having a good model to evaluate the function For most adhesive joints this can be achieved using fracture mechanics Concepts such as the stress concentration factor and the strain energy release rate can be used to predict failure In such models the behavior of the adhesive layer itself is neglected and only the adherents are considered Failure will also very much depend on the opening mode of the joint Mode I is an opening or tensile mode where the loadings are normal to the crack Mode II is a sliding or in plane shear mode where the crack surfaces slide over one another in direction perpendicular to the leading edge of the crack This is typically the mode for which the adhesive exhibits the highest resistance to fracture Mode III is a tearing or antiplane shear mode As the loads are usually fixed an acceptable design will result from combination of a material selection procedure and geometry modifications if possible In adhesively bonded structures the global geometry and loads are fixed by structural considerations and the design procedure focuses on the material properties of the adhesive and on local changes on the geometry Increasing the joint resistance is usually obtained by designing its geometry so that The bonded zone is large It is mainly loaded in mode II Stable crack propagation will follow the appearance of a local failure Shelf life edit Some glues and adhesives have a limited storage life and will stop working in a reliable manner if their safe shelf life is exceeded The mold and mold inserts are referred to as "tooling " The mold tooling can be constructed from a variety of materials Tooling materials include invar steel aluminium reinforced silicone rubber nickel and carbon fiber Selection of the tooling material is typically based on but not limited to the coefficient of thermal expansion expected number of cycles end item tolerance desired or required surface condition method of cure glass transition temperature of the material being moulded moulding method matrix cost and a variety of other considerations Physical properties edit The physical properties of composite materials are generally not isotropic independent of direction of applied force in nature but rather are typically anisotropic different depending on the direction of the applied force or load For instance the stiffness of a composite panel will often depend upon the orientation of the applied forces and or moments Panel stiffness is also dependent on the design of the panel For instance the fibre reinforcement and matrix used the method of panel build thermoset versus thermoplastic type of weave and orientation of fibre axis to the primary force In contrast isotropic materials for example aluminium or steel in standard wrought forms typically have the same stiffness regardless of the directional orientation of the applied forces and or moments The relationship between forces moments and strains curvatures for an isotropic material can be described with the following material properties Young's Modulus the shear Modulus and the Poisson's ratio in relatively simple mathematical relationships For the anisotropic material it requires the mathematics of a second order tensor and up to material property constants For the special case of orthogonal isotropy there are three different material property constants for each of Young's Modulus Shear Modulus and Poisson's ratio—a total of constants to describe the relationship between forces moments and strains curvatures Techniques that take advantage of the anisotropic properties of the materials include mortise and tenon joints in natural composites such as wood and Pi Joints in synthetic composites Failure edit Shock impact or repeated cyclic stresses can cause the laminate to separate at the interface between two layers a condition known as delamination Individual fibres can separate from the matrix e g fibre pull out Composites can fail on the microscopic or macroscopic scale Compression failures can occur at both the macro scale or at each individual reinforcing fiber in compression buckling Tension failures can be net section failures of the part or degradation of the composite at a microscopic scale where one or more of the layers in the composite fail in tension of the matrix or failure of the bond between the matrix and fibers Some composites are brittle and have little reserve strength beyond the initial onset of failure while others may have large deformations and have reserve energy absorbing capacity past the onset of damage The variations in fibers and matrices that are available and the mixtures that can be made with blends leave a very broad range of properties that can be designed into a composite structure The best known failure of a brittle ceramic matrix composite occurred when the carbon carbon composite tile on the leading edge of the wing of the Space Shuttle Columbia fractured when impacted during take off It led to catastrophic break up of the vehicle when it re entered the Earth's atmosphere on February Compared to metals composites have relatively poor bearing strength Testing edit To aid in predicting and preventing failures composites are tested before and after construction Pre construction testing may use finite element analysis FEA for ply by ply analysis of curved surfaces and predicting wrinkling crimping and dimpling of composites Materials may be tested during manufacturing and after construction through several nondestructive methods including ultrasonics thermography shearography and X ray radiography and laser bond inspection for NDT of relative bond strength integrity in a localized area Main article Thin shell structure See also Gridshell Shells derive their strength from their form and carry forces in compression in two directions A dome is an example of a shell They can be designed by making a hanging chain model which will act as a catenary in pure tension and inverting the form to achieve pure compression Arches edit Main article Arch Arches carry forces in compression in one direction only which is why it is appropriate to build arches out of masonry They are designed by ensuring that the line of thrust of the force remains within the depth of the arch It is mainly used to increase the bountifulness of any structure Catenaries edit Main article Tensile structure Catenaries derive their strength from their form and carry transverse forces in pure tension by deflecting just as a tightrope will sag when someone walks on it They are almost always cable or fabric structures A fabric structure acts as a catenary in two directions Structural engineering theory edit Main article Structural engineering theory Bob Fass begins the long-running, late night Radio Unnameable program on WBAI-FM in New York City, a listener-supported station that is later remembered as "the pulse of the movement" by Wavy Gravy.[159][160][161] April: Chandler Laughlin organizes a Native American Church peyote ceremony, a precursor to The Red Dog Experience. April–May: Birmingham Campaign: Civil Rights activists trained by James Bevel are attacked by police in Birmingham, Alabama. Similar events occur at various locations across the deep south throughout the spring and summer. May: The first organized Vietnam War protests occur in England and Australia. May 1: Undercover Bunny: Gloria Steinem's Playboy Club exposé appears in Show Magazine.[158] June 10: A Strategy of Peace: JFK delivers a powerful commencement speech at American University.[162] June 11: Buddhist monk Thich Quang Duc self-immolates in Saigon. AP photographer Malcolm Browne's coverage of the horrific event reportedly motivates JFK to increase US troop strength in the developing Vietnam conflict.[163][164] June 12: NAACP Field Secretary Medgar Evers is assassinated in Jackson, MS.[165] June 17: The US Supreme Court rules public school-sponsored Bible reading unconstitutional.[166][167] July 26–28: The now-legendary Newport Folk Festival features Bob Dylan and fellow protest singers Pete Seeger, Joan Baez, Phil Ochs, and Peter, Paul & Mary.[168][169] August 28: Martin Luther King, Jr. gives his landmark "I Have a Dream" speech before 200,000 on the Mall in Washington, DC during the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom.[170] September 24: The US Senate ratifies The Partial Test Ban Treaty as signed by the US and USSR, ending testing of nuclear weapons under water, in the atmosphere, and in space by the superpowers.[171] September 26: The US Senate debates a report that folk music is being infiltrated by communism. Two senators speak and conclude it is "American," dismissing the report.[172] October 27: 225,000 students in Chicago schools boycott classes in protest at ongoing segregation. October 31: Harvard University is scandalized by disclosure that students have engaged in on-campus "sex orgies."[173] November 2: South Vietnamese President Ngo Dinh Diem is assassinated in Saigon.[174] November 22: US President John F. Kennedy is assassinated in Dallas, TX. Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson is sworn in as 36th President of the US.[175] November 24: Suspected JFK assassin Lee Harvey Oswald is himself murdered by Jack Ruby under lax police security in Dallas, thereby creating doubt for many, and opening the door to myriad conspiracy theories concerning the Kennedy Assassination and the veracity of later government findings.[176] 1964[edit] January: The Holy Modal Rounders' version of "Hesitation Blues" marks the first reference to the term psychedelic in music.[177] January 8: LBJ's State of the Union address features a declaration of "War on Poverty".[178][179] January 13: The Times They Are A-Changin': Bob Dylan's 3rd album is released and the title track is soon considered to be the most prophetic and relevant American protest song of the era. Dylan disagrees, saying the song "is a feeling."[180][181] January 23: 24th Amendment ratified: US Congress and states are prohibited from conditioning the right to vote in federal elections on payment of poll or other forms of tax.[182] January 27: Defense Secretary Robert McNamara states that there are now 15,000 US troops in South Vietnam, and that most will be withdrawn by the end of 1965. February 1: I Want to Hold Your Hand: The Beatles achieve their first hit #1 on Billboard with a 7-week run on top. Beatlemania has spread to the US, and the monumental British Invasion of UK music begins.[183][184] February 7–22: The Beatles make their first US visit and appear on The Ed Sullivan Show. The February 9 telecast is seen by over 73 million, the largest TV audience to date in the US.[185] February 21–24: Students at Maryland State College protesting a segregated restaurant are fought by police. February 25–26: Tens of thousands of school students in Boston and Chicago skip classes in protest of segregation. March 16: 25% of school students in New York City strike to protest segregation. April 4: Beatles singles occupy the top 5 slots on the Billboard Hot 100. It's an unprecedented, and never repeated, chart achievement.[186] April 20: Approximately 85% of black students in Cleveland boycott classes to protest segregation.[187] May: Appearance of the Faire Free Press (later the Los Angeles Free Press), earliest of many "underground" US newspapers of the counterculture era. May: San Francisco Sheraton Palace Hotel sit-ins result in arrests of University of California, Berkeley students protesting racially discriminatory Bay area hiring practices.[188] May 7: President Johnson first refers to "the Great Society" in a speech in Athens, OH. May 12: The first public draft-card burning is reported in New York City. June 14: Ken Kesey and the drug-drenched Merry Pranksters depart California in the repurposed school bus "Further" en route to the 1964 World's Fair in Queens, NY. June 22: "I Know it When I See it": The US Supreme Court overturns the obscenity conviction of an Ohio theater operator. Although local obscenity battles continue to the present, the decision clears the way for the commercial exhibition of sexually-explicit film material in the US.[189][190][191] July 2: The Civil Rights Act is signed by President Johnson. Racial segregation in public places and race-based employment discrimination are now banned under federal law. July: The US Federal Communications Commission (FCC) adopts radio non-duplication rules: FM must broadcast original content, not simply simulcasts of AM sister stations. Soon, FM DJs are free to play the music of the generation without regard to chart status.[192][193] August 2: War Dance: the spurious Gulf of Tonkin Incidents off the coast of Vietnam lead to the nearly unanimous passage of the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution by the US Congress on August 7, giving the president unprecedented broad authority to engage in full "conventional" military escalation in Southeast Asia without a formal declaration of war.[194] October 1: The Free Speech Movement begins with a student sit-in at the University of California, Berkeley.[195][196][197] October 14: Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. wins the Nobel Peace Prize.[198] October 25: Bad Boys The Rolling Stones appear on Ed Sullivan and create so much audience disruption that Sullivan bans the "lewd" group from his show. The Stones are back, however, in future years.[184] November 3: Sitting President Lyndon B. Johnson is elected President of the US in his own right, defeating Republican Arizona Senator Barry Goldwater in a landslide.[199] November 4: Comedian Lenny Bruce is convicted on obscenity charges in New York City. Bruce is soon sentenced to a workhouse.[200] December 2: In a now-famous speech during another Berkeley sit-in, student Mario Savio tells supporters of the Free Speech Movement to "put your bodies upon the gears."[201][202] 1965[edit] February 8: Aerial bombing of North Vietnam by the US commences. February 9–15: Thousands demonstrate against the US attacks on North Vietnam at the US Embassies in Moscow, Budapest, Jakarta, and Sofia. February 21: Malcolm X is assassinated in New York City. March: The "Filthy Speech Rally" at Berkeley.[203][204] March 6: Regular US troops engage in combat in Vietnam for the first time. March 7–25: The SCLC stages the watershed Selma to Montgomery marches, initiated and initially organized by James Bevel. March 16: Alice Herz, age 82, self-immolates in Detroit, MI in protest of Vietnam escalation. Herz dies 10 days later.[205] March 24–25: The first major "Teach-in" is held by the SDS in Ann Arbor, MI. 3000 attend. March 25: For Your Love: Already a guitar legend, blues purist Eric Clapton quits The Yardbirds after release of the proto-psychedelic hit. Clapton recommends Jimmy Page to fill his spot. Page passes (though he later joins the group), but suggests Jeff Beck, who accepts.[206][207] Spring: Don't trust anyone over 30: Berkeley grad student and Free Speech activist Jack Weinberg's quip is quoted in paraphrase, inadvertently creating a key catchphrase of the generation.[208] April: Beatles John Lennon and George Harrison are given LSD without their knowledge by their dentist at a UK dinner party.[209] April: US combat troops in Vietnam total 25,000. April 17: The first major anti-Vietnam War rally in the US is organized by the SDS in Washington, DC. 25,000 attend. Joan Baez, Judy Collins, and Phil Ochs perform. May: Owsley Stanley returns to the Bay Area with the first large batch of LSD for sale as a recreational drug.[210][211] May 17: Hunter S. Thompson's article The Motorcycle Gangs: Losers and Outsiders appears in The Nation. A book soon follows. May: Draft card burnings take place at University of California, Berkeley. A coffin is marched to the Berkeley draft board, and President Johnson is hanged in effigy. Jerry Rubin forms the Vietnam Day Committee[212] with Abbie Hoffman and others during these events.[213] June–August: Red Dog Experience comes into full flower at Virginia City, Nevada's Red Dog Saloon - full-fledged "hippie" identity takes shape. June 7: Griswold v. Connecticut: The US Supreme Court rules that Constitutional privacy guarantees trump a Connecticut statute banning use of contraceptives by married couples. "Comstock-era" laws are likewise now moot in other states. In 1972, the court rules that protections apply to unmarried couples as well.[214][215][216] June 11: International Poetry Incarnation: Notables including Allen Ginsburg, Lawrence Ferlinghetti, Michael Horovitz and William S. Burroughs participate in a breakthrough event for the UK Underground, Royal Albert Hall, London.[217] June 11: The Beatles are awarded as Members of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (MBE) by the Queen for their contributions to British commerce. The myth that they smoked marijuana in a palace bathroom after the investiture ceremony is later debunked by George Harrison. Paul McCartney is knighted by the Queen in 1997, a year after producer George Martin.[218][219] July 25: Bob Dylan "goes electric" and is booed at the Newport Folk Festival. July 30: Medicare is signed into law in the US, giving seniors a healthcare safety net. August 6: The Voting Rights Act is signed into law in the US; "Literacy tests", poll taxes and other local schemes to prevent voting by blacks are newly or further banned under federal law. August 11: Watts: 6 days of massive race riots erupt in Los Angeles: 35 dead, 1000 buildings damaged or destroyed. Meanwhile, smaller riots occur in Chicago. August 24: She Said She Said: The Beatles briefly rest in Laurel Canyon near the end of their grueling American tour. Unable to leave their rented home, they invite local company, including the The Byrds, Peter Fonda, Joan Baez, and Peggy Lipton. Lennon writes a song, which appears on Revolver in 1966.[220][221][222] August 31: The ban on the burning of draft cards is signed into law in the US. September 5: The word hippie is used in print by San Francisco writer Michael Fallon, helping popularise use of the term in the media, although the tag was seen earlier in a 2 Heir presumptive 2.1 Second World War 2.2 Marriage and family 3 Reign 3.1 Accession and coronation 3.2 Continuing evolution of the Commonwealth 3.3 Acceleration of decolonisation 3.4 Silver Jubilee 3.5 1980s 3.6 1990s 3.7 Golden Jubilee 3.8 Diamond Jubilee and beyond 4 Public perception and character 4.1 Finances 5 Titles, styles, honours and arms 5.1 Titles and styles 5.2 Arms 6 Issue 7 Ancestry 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 Bibliography 12 External links Early life Elizabeth as a thoughtful-looking toddler with curly, fair hair Princess Elizabeth aged 3, April 1929 Elizabeth was born at 02:40 (GMT) on 21 April 1926, during the reign of her paternal grandfather, King George V. Her father, Prince Albert, Duke of York (later King George VI), was the second son of the King. Her mother, Elizabeth, Duchess of York (later Queen Elizabeth), was the youngest daughter of Scottish aristocrat Claude Bowes-Lyon, 14th Earl of Strathmore and Kinghorne. She was delivered by Caesarean section at her maternal grandfather's London house: 17 Bruton Street, Mayfair.[2] She was baptised by the Anglican Archbishop of York, Cosmo Gordon Lang, in the private chapel of Buckingham Palace on 29 May,[3][c] and named Elizabeth after her mother, Alexandra after George V's mother, who had died six months earlier, and Mary after her paternal grandmother.[5] Called "Lilibet" by her close family,[6] based on what she called herself at first,[7] she was cherished by her grandfather George V, and during his serious illness in 1929 her regular visits were credited in the popular press and by later biographers with raising his spirits and aiding his recovery.[8] Elizabeth's only sibling, Princess Margaret, was born in 1930. The two princesses were educated at home under the supervision of their mother and their governess, Marion Crawford, who was casually known as "Crawfie".[9] Lessons concentrated on history, language, literature and music.[10] Crawford published a biography of Elizabeth and Margaret's childhood years entitled The Little Princesses in 1950, much to the dismay of the royal family.[11] The book describes Elizabeth's love of horses and dogs, her orderliness, and her attitude of responsibility.[12] Others echoed such observations: Winston Churchill described Elizabeth when she was two as "a character. She has an air of authority and reflectiveness astonishing in an infant."[13] Her cousin Margaret Rhodes described her as "a jolly little girl, but fundamentally sensible and well-behaved".[14] Heir presumptive Elizabeth as a rosy-cheeked young girl with blue eyes and fair hair Princess Elizabeth aged 7, painted by Philip de László, 1933 During her grandfather's reign, Elizabeth was third in the line of succession to the throne, behind her uncle Edward, Prince of Wales, and her father, the Duke of York. Although her birth generated public interest, she was not expected to become queen, as the Prince of Wales was still young, and many assumed that he would marry and have children of his own.[15] When her grandfather died in 1936 and her uncle succeeded as Edward VIII, she became second-in-line to the throne, after her father. Later that year Edward abdicated, after his proposed marriage to divorced socialite Wallis Simpson provoked a constitutional crisis.[16] Consequently, Elizabeth's father became king, and she became heir presumptive. If her parents had had a later son, she would have lost her position as first-in-line, as her brother would have been heir apparent and above her in the line of succession.[17] Elizabeth received private tuition in constitutional history from Henry Marten, Vice-Provost of Eton College,[18] and learned French from a succession of native-speaking governesses.[19] A Girl Guides company, the 1st Buckingham Palace Company, was formed specifically so that she could socialise with girls her own age.[20] Later, she was enrolled as a Sea Ranger.[19] In 1939, Elizabeth's parents toured Canada and the United States. As in 1927, when her parents had toured Australia and New Zealand, Elizabeth remained in Britain, since her father thought her too young to undertake public tours.[21] Elizabeth "looked tearful" as her parents departed.[22] They corresponded regularly,[22] and she and her parents made the first royal transatlantic telephone call on 18 May.[21] Second World War In September 1939, Britain entered the Second World War, which lasted until 1945. During the war, many of London's children were evacuated to avoid the frequent aerial bombing. The suggestion by senior politician Lord Hailsham[23] that the two princesses should be evacuated to Canada was rejected by Elizabeth's mother, who declared, "The children won't go without me. I won't leave without the King. And the King will never leave."[24] Princesses Elizabeth and Margaret stayed at Balmoral Castle, Scotland, until Christmas 1939, when they moved to Sandringham House, Norfolk.[25] From February to May 1940, they lived at Royal Lodge, Windsor, until moving to Windsor Castle, where they lived for most of the next five years.[26] At Windsor, the princesses staged pantomimes at Christmas in aid of the Queen's Wool Fund, which bought yarn to knit into military garments.[27] In 1940, the 14-year-old Elizabeth made her first radio broadcast during the BBC's Children's Hour, addressing other children who had been evacuated from the cities.[28] She stated: We are trying to do all we can to help our gallant sailors, soldiers and airmen, and we are trying, too, to bear our share of the danger and sadness of war. We know, every one of us, that in the end all will be well.[28] Elizabeth in Auxiliary Territorial Service uniform, April 1945 Princess Elizabeth (left, in uniform) on the balcony of Buckingham Palace with (left to right) her mother Queen Elizabeth, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, King George VI, and Princess Margaret, 8 May 1945 In 1943, at the age of 16, Elizabeth undertook her first solo public appearance on a visit to the Grenadier Guards, of which she had been appointed colonel the previous year.[29] As she approached her 18th birthday, the law was changed so that she could act as one of five Counsellors of State in the event of her father's incapacity or absence abroad, such as his visit to Italy in July 1944.[30] In February 1945, she joined the Women's Auxiliary Territorial Service as an honorary second subaltern with the service number of 230873.[31] She trained as a driver and mechanic and was promoted to honorary junior commander five months later.[32][33] At the end of the war in Europe, on Victory in Europe Day, Princesses Elizabeth and Margaret mingled anonymously with the celebratory crowds in the streets of London. Elizabeth later said in a rare interview, "We asked my parents if we could go out and see for ourselves. I remember we were terrified of being recognised ... I remember lines of unknown people linking arms and walking down Whitehall, all of us just swept along on a tide of happiness and relief."[34] During the war, plans were drawn up to quell Welsh nationalism by affiliating Elizabeth more closely with Wales. Proposals, such as appointing her Constable of Caernarfon Castle or a patron of Urdd Gobaith Cymru (the Welsh League of Youth), were abandoned for various reasons, which included a fear of associating Elizabeth with conscientious objectors in the Urdd, at a time when Britain was at war.[35] Welsh politicians suggested that she be made Princess of Wales on her 18th birthday. The idea was supported by the Home Secretary, Herbert Morrison, but rejected by the King because he felt such a title belonged solely to the wife of a Prince of Wales and the Prince of Wales had always been the heir apparent.[36] In 1946, she was inducted into the Welsh Gorsedd of Bards at the National Eisteddfod of Wales.[37] In 1947, Princess Elizabeth went on her first overseas tour, accompanying her parents through southern Africa. During the tour, in a broadcast to the British Commonwealth on her 21st birthday, she made the following pledge: I declare before you all that my whole life, whether it be long or short, shall be devoted to your service and the service of our great imperial family to which we all belong.[38] Marriage and family Main article: Wedding of Princess Elizabeth and Philip Mountbatten, Duke of Edinburgh Elizabeth met her future husband, Prince Philip of Greece and Denmark, in 1934 and 1937.[39] They are second cousins once removed through King Christian IX of Denmark and third cousins through Queen Victoria. After another meeting at the Royal Naval College in Dartmouth in July 1939, Elizabeth—though only 13 years old—said she fell in love with Philip and they began to exchange letters.[40] Their engagement was officially announced on 9 July 1947.[41] The engagement was not without controversy: Philip had no financial standing, was foreign-born (though a British subject who had served in the Royal Navy throughout the Second World War), and had sisters who had married German noblemen with Nazi links.[42] Marion Crawford wrote, "Some of the King's advisors did not think him good enough for her. He was a prince without a home or kingdom. Some of the papers played long and loud tunes on the string of Philip's foreign origin."[43] Elizabeth's mother was reported, in later biographies, to have opposed the union initially, even dubbing Philip "The Hun".[44] In later life, however, she told biographer Tim Heald that Philip was "an English gentleman".[45] Before the marriage, Philip renounced his Greek and Danish titles, converted from Greek Orthodoxy to Anglicanism, and adopted the style Lieutenant Philip Mountbatten, taking the surname of his mother's British family.[46] Just before the wedding, he was created Duke of Edinburgh and granted the style His Royal Highness.[47] Elizabeth and Philip were married on 20 November 1947 at Westminster Abbey. They received 2500 wedding gifts from around the world.[48] Because Britain had not yet completely recovered from the devastation of the war, Elizabeth required ration coupons to buy the material for her gown, which was designed by Norman Hartnell.[49] In post-war Britain, it was not acceptable for the Duke of Edinburgh's German relations, including his three surviving sisters, to be invited to the wedding.[50] The Duke of Windsor, formerly King Edward VIII, was not invited either.[51] Elizabeth gave birth to her first child, Prince Charles, on 14 November 1948. One month earlier, the King had issued letters patent allowing her children to use the style and title of a royal prince or princess, to which they otherwise would not have been entitled as their father was no longer a royal prince.[52] A second child, Princess Anne, was born in 1950.[53] Following their wedding, the couple leased Windlesham Moor, near Windsor Castle, until 4 July 1949,[48] when they took up residence at Clarence House in London. At various times between 1949 and 1951, the Duke of Edinburgh was stationed in the British Crown Colony of Malta as a serving Royal Navy officer. He and Elizabeth lived intermittently, for several months at a time, in the hamlet of Gwardamanga, at Villa Guardamangia, the rented home of Philip's uncle, Lord Mountbatten. The children remained in Britain.[54] Reign Accession and coronation Elizabeth in crown and robes next to her husband in military uniform Coronation portrait of Queen Elizabeth II and the Duke of Edinburgh, June 1953 Coronation of Elizabeth II Main article: Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II During 1951, George VI's health declined and Elizabeth frequently stood in for him at public events. When she toured Canada and visited President Harry S. Truman in Washington, D.C., in October 1951, her private secretary, Martin Charteris, carried a draft accession declaration in case the King died while she was on tour.[55] In early 1952, Elizabeth and Philip set out for a tour of Australia and New Zealand by way of Kenya. On 6 February 1952, they had just returned to their Kenyan home, Sagana Lodge, after a night spent at Treetops Hotel, when word arrived of the death of the King and consequently Elizabeth's immediate accession to the throne. Philip broke the news to the new Queen.[56] Martin Charteris asked her to choose a regnal name; she chose to remain Elizabeth, "of course".[57] She was proclaimed queen throughout her realms and the royal party hastily returned to the United Kingdom.[58] She and the Duke of Edinburgh moved into Buckingham Palace.[59] With Elizabeth's accession, it seemed probable that the royal house would bear her husband's name, becoming the House of Mountbatten, in line with the custom of a wife taking her husband's surname on marriage. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and Elizabeth's grandmother, Queen Mary, favoured the retention of the House of Windsor, and so on 9 April 1952 Elizabeth issued a declaration that Windsor would continue to be the name of the royal house. The Duke complained, "I am the only man in the country not allowed to give his name to his own children."[60] In 1960, after the death of Queen Mary in 1953 and the resignation of Churchill in 1955, the surname Mountbatten-Windsor was adopted for Philip and Elizabeth's male-line descendants who do not carry royal titles.[61] Amid preparations for the coronation, Princess Margaret informed her sister that she wished to marry Peter Townsend, a divorcé‚ 16 years Margaret's senior, with two sons from his previous marriage. The Queen asked them to wait for a year; in the words of Martin Charteris, "the Queen was naturally sympathetic towards the Princess, but I think she thought—she hoped—given time, the affair would peter out."[62] Senior politicians were against the match and the Church of England did not permit remarriage after divorce. If Margaret had contracted a civil marriage, she would have been expected to renounce her right of succession.[63] Eventually, she decided to abandon her plans with Townsend.[64] In 1960, she married Antony Armstrong-Jones, who was created Earl of Snowdon the following year. They were divorced in 1978; she did not remarry.[65] Despite the death of Queen Mary on 24 March, the coronation on 2 June 1953 went ahead as planned, as Mary had asked before she died.[66] The ceremony in Westminster Abbey, with the exception of the anointing and communion, was televised for the first time.[67][d] Elizabeth's coronation gown was embroidered on her instructions with the floral emblems of Commonwealth countries:[71] English Tudor rose; Scots thistle; Welsh leek; Irish shamrock; Australian wattle; Canadian maple leaf; New Zealand silver fern; South African protea; lotus flowers for India and Ceylon; and Pakistan's wheat, cotton, and jute.[72] Continuing evolution of the Commonwealth Further information: Historical development of the Commonwealth realms, from the Queen's accession The Commonwealth realms (pink) and their territories and protectorates (red) at the beginning of Elizabeth II's reign A formal group of Elizabeth in tiara and evening dress with eleven politicians in evening dress or national costume. Elizabeth II and Commonwealth leaders at the 1960 Commonwealth Conference, Windsor Castle From Elizabeth's birth onwards, the British Empire continued its transformation into the Commonwealth of Nations.[73] By the time of her accession in 1952, her role as head of multiple independent states was already established.[74] Spanning 1953–54, the Queen and her husband embarked on a six-month around-the-world tour. She became the first reigning monarch of Australia and New Zealand to visit those nations.[75] During the tour, crowds were immense; three-quarters of the population of Australia were estimated to have seen her.[76] Throughout her reign, the Queen has undertaken state visits to foreign countries and tours of Commonwealth ones and she is the most widely travelled head of state.[77] In 1956, French Prime Minister Guy Mollet and British Prime Minister Sir Anthony Eden discussed the possibility of France joining the Commonwealth. The proposal was never accepted and the following year France signed the Treaty of Rome, which established the European Economic Community, the precursor of the European Union.[78] In November 1956, Britain and France invaded Egypt in an ultimately unsuccessful attempt to capture the Suez Canal. Lord Mountbatten claimed the Queen was opposed to the invasion, though Eden denied it. Eden resigned two months later.[79] The absence of a formal mechanism within the Conservative Party for choosing a leader meant that, following Eden's resignation, it fell to the Queen to decide whom to commission to form a government. Eden recommended that she consult Lord Salisbury, the Lord President of the Council. Lord Salisbury and Lord Kilmuir, the Lord Chancellor, consulted the British Cabinet, Winston Churchill, and the Chairman of the backbench 1922 Committee, resulting in the Queen appointing their recommended candidate: Harold Macmillan.[80] The Suez crisis and the choice of Eden's successor led in 1957 to the first major personal criticism of the Queen. In a magazine, which he owned and edited,[81] Lord Altrincham accused her of being "out of touch".[82] Altrincham was denounced by public figures and slapped by a member of the public appalled by his comments.[83] Aleksejs Širovs born – chess player Andris Škele born – politician Prime Minister of Latvia Armands Škele – basketball player Ksenia Solo born – actress Ernests Štalbergs – – architect ensemble of the Freedom Monument Izaks Nahmans Šteinbergs – – politician lawyer and author Maris Štrombergs – BMX cyclist gold medal winner at and Olympics T edit Esther Takeuchi born – materials scientist and chemical engineer Mihails Tals – – the th World Chess Champion Janis Roberts Tilbergs – – painter sculptor U edit Guntis Ulmanis born – president of Latvia Karlis Ulmanis – – prime minister and president of Latvia


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carmel-nougat carmen-blonde carmen-de-la-torre carmen-moore carmen-rose carol-connors carol-cross carol-cummings carole-dubois carole-gire carole-pierac carol-titian carolyn-connoly carolyn-monroe carrie-cruise cassandra-leigh cassidy cassie-courtland cataline-bullock catherine-count catherine-crystal catherine-ringer catherine-tailleferre cathy-delorme cathy-menard cathy-stewart celeste-fox celine-gallone chanel-preston chanel-price chantal-virapin chanta-rose chantelle-stevens charisma charisma-cole charlie-latour charlie-waters charlotte-de-castille charmane-star chasey-lain chayse-manhattan chaz-vincent chelsea-sinclaire chennin-blanc cheri-janvier cheri-taylor cherry-hill chessie-moore cheyenne-hunter cheyenne-silver china-lee china-leigh china-moon chloe-cruize chloe-dior chloe-kez chloe-stevens chris-collins chris-jordan chris-petersen chrissie-beauchamp christa-abel christa-ludwig christie-ford christi-lake christina-berg christina-blond christina-evol christina-skye christine-black christine-chavert christine-neona christine-rigoler christy-canyon cicciolina cindi-stephens cindy-carver cindy-crawford cindy-more cindy-shepard cindy-wong cinthya-marinho clair-dia claire-robbins claude-janna claudia-jackson claudia-jamsson claudia-mehringer claudia-nero claudia-van-statt claudia-zante claudine-beccarie clea-carson cleo-nichole cleo-patra cody-lane cody-love cody-nicole coffee-brown colleen-brennan connie-bennett connie-peterson constance-money copper-penny coreena corey-everson corinne-lemoine corneliah cory-everson cory-wolf courtney courtney-cummz courtney-james cris-cassidy crissy-moran cris-taliana crystal-breeze crystal-dawn crystal-holland crystal-knight crystal-lake crystal-lovin crystal-sync csilla-kalnay cuban-bee cynara-fox cyndee-summers cynthia-black cynthia-brooks cynthia-hammers cynthia-lavigne dagmar-lost daisy-layne dallas-miko dana-dylan dana-lynn danica-rhea daniela-nanou daniela-schiffer daniele-troeger daniella daniella-schiffer danielle danielle-foxxx danielle-rodgers danny-ricci danyel-cheeks daphne daphne-rosen darby-lloyd-rains darla-crane darla-delovely davia-ardell dayton-rain debbie-northrup debbie-revenge debbie-van-gils debi-diamond debi-jointed debra-lynn deidra-hopkins deidre-holland delania-raffino delia-moore delphine-thail delta-force delta-white demi-moor denice-klarskov denise-derringer denise-dior denise-sloan desiree-cousteau desiree-foxx desiree-lane desiree-west deva-station devin-devasquez devinn-lane devon-shire dia diana-holt diana-kisabonyi diana-siefert diana-stevenson diane-dubois diane-richards diane-sloan diane-suresne dido-angel dillan-lauren dina-deville dina-jewel dina-pearl ditty-blue diva divinity-love djiana dolly-darkley dominique dominique-dewitt dominique-saint-claire donna-hart donna-marie dorle-buchner dorothy-lemay dorothy-onan drea drimla dru-berrymore dusty-rose dyanna-lauren ebony-ayes edina-blond edita-ungerova edwige-faillel eileen-wells elaine-southern elena-berkova elena-maria-ricci eleonore-melzer elisabeth-bure elis-black elise elise-di-medici elle-devyne elle-rio elodie-delage elsa-maroussia elza-brown emili-doll emily-evermoore emily-george emily-jewel emmanuelle-pareze envy-mi erica-boyer erica-eaton erica-havens erica-idol erica-lauren erika-bella erika-cool erika-heaven erika-lockett esme-monroe eva-allen eva-angel eva-dionisio eva-gross eva-kleber eva-lux eva-uettori eve-laurence evelyne-lang evie-delatosso fabiana-venturi faith-stevens fallon fanny-garreau fanny-steel faye-runaway flame flick-shagwell flore-soller flower france-lomay france-quenie francoise frankie-leigh gabriella gabriella-mirelba gabriella-vincze gail-force gail-palmer gail-sterling georgette-saunders georgia-peach georgina-spelvin gia-givanna gianna-lynn gili-sky gina-carrera gina-gianetti gina-janssen gina-lee gina-martell gina-valentino ginger-jay ginger-lee ginger-lynn ginny-noack giovanna gisela-schwarz giselle-monet gladys-laroche gloria-leonard gloria-todd golden-jade greta-carlson greta-milos guia-lauri-filzi gwenda-farnel hare-krane harley-raine hayley-jade hazel-young heather-deeley heather-ellis heather-hart heather-lere heather-lyn heather-manfield heather-thomas heather-torrance heather-wayne heather-young helen-madigan helen-thomas helga-sven helga-wild hillary-summers holly-hollywood holly-joy holly-page holly-ryder honey-winter hottie-hollie hyapatia-lee ida-fabry ildiko-smits illana-moor ines-ridere ingrid-choray isabella-dior isabella-soprano isabelle-allay isabelle-brell isabelle-marchall isobel-wren iveta ivette-blanche jackie-right jacqueline-lorians jacy-allen jada-stevens jade-east jade-hsu jade-marcela jade-summers jade-wong jahn-gold jamie-brooks jamie-james jamie-summers jana-irrova jana-mrazkova jane-baker jane-darling jane-iwanoff jane-lindsay jane-lixx janet-jacme janey-robbins jasmine-delatori jayden-simone jaylyn-rose jayna-woods jazella-moore jazmin-luna-gold jean-afrique jeanette-littledove jeanie-marie-sullivan jean-jennings jeanna-fine jeannie-pepper jenna-jameson jenna-jane jenna-presley jenna-wells jennifer-haussmann jennifer-janes jennifer-jordan jennifer-morante jennifer-noxt jennifer-stewart jennifer-welles jennifer-west jenny jenny-feeling jenny-fields jenny-wings jersey-jaxin jesie-st-james jesse-capelli jessica-bangkok jessica-bogart jessica-darlin jessica-fiorentino jessica-gabriel jessica-laine jessica-may jessica-road jessica-wylde jessi-foster jill-ferari jill-kelly joana-redgrave joan-devlon joanna-storm joanna-sweet jody-maxwell joelle-lequement joelle-petinot johnni-black jordana-james jordan-green jordan-nevaeh jordan-star josephine-carrington joslyn-james julia-chanel julia-dal-fuoco juliana-grandi julia-paes julia-parton julia-perrin julia-swen julia-thomas julie-meadows julie-rage julie-simone juliet-anderson juliet-graham juliette-carelton kacey-jordan kagney-linn-karter kaitlyn-ashley kalena-rios kami-andrews kamila-smith kandee-licks kandi-barbour kapri-styles kara-nox karen-summer kari-foxx karine-gambier karin-schubert karli-sweet karmen-kennedy karol-castro kascha kassi-nova kat kate-frost kate-jones kathia-nobili kathleen-gentry kathleen-white kathy-divan kathy-harcourt kathy-heart kathy-kash katie-cummings katja-love kat-langer katrina-isis katrina-kraven katy-borman katy-caro kaycee-dean kayla-kupcakes kay-parker k-c-valentine keama-kim keira-moon keisha keli-richards kelli-tyler kelly-adams kelly-blue kelly-broox kelly-hearn kelly-kay kelly-kline kelly-nichols kelly-royce kelly-skyline kendra-kay kenzi-marie keri-windsor ketthy-divan kianna-dior kiley-heart kim-alexis kimber-blake kimberly-carson kimberly-kane kimberly-kyle kim-de-place kim-holland kimi-gee kimkim-de kim-kitaine kimmie-lee kimmy-nipples kina-kara kira-eggers kira-red kirsty-waay kitty-langdon kitty-lynxxx kitty-marie kitty-shayne kitty-yung kora-cummings kris-lara krista-lane krista-maze kristara-barrington kristarah-knight kristi-klenot kristina-blonde kristina-king kristina-klevits kristina-soderszk kristine-heller kristin-steen krisztina-ventura krystal-de-boor krystal-steal kylee-karr kylee-nash kylie-brooks kylie-channel kylie-haze kylie-wylde kym-wilde kyoto-sun lachelle-marie lacy-rose lady-amanda-wyldefyre lady-stephanie laetitia-bisset lana-burner lana-cox lana-wood lara-amour lara-roxx lara-stevens lataya-roxx latoya laura-clair laura-lazare laura-lion laura-may laura-orsolya laura-paouck laura-zanzibar lauren-black laurence-boutin lauren-montgomery laurien-dominique laurien-wilde laurie-smith lauryl-canyon lauryn-may leah-wilde lea-magic lea-martini leanna-foxxx lee-caroll leigh-livingston leilani lenora-bruce leslie-winston lesllie-bovee letizia-bruni lexi-lane lexi-matthews lezley-zen lia-fire liliane-gray liliane-lemieuvre lili-marlene lily-gilder lily-labeau lily-rodgers lily-valentine linda-shaw linda-vale linda-wong linnea-quigley lisa-bright lisa-de-leeuw lisa-k-loring lisa-lake lisa-melendez lisa-sue-corey lise-pinson little-oral-annie liza-dwyer liza-harper lizzy-borden logan-labrent lois-ayres lola-cait long-jean-silver loni-bunny loni-sanders loona-luxx lorelei-lee lorelei-rand lorena-sanchez lori-alexia lori-blue lorrie-lovett luci-diamond lucie-doll lucie-theodorova lucy-van-dam lydia-baum lynn-franciss lynn-lemay lynn-ray lynn-stevens lynx-canon lysa-thatcher madelina-ray madison-parker magdalena-lynn maggie-randall mai-lin mandi-wine mandy-bright mandy-malone mandy-may mandy-mistery mandy-starr marcia-minor maren margit-ojetz margitta-hofer margo-stevens margot-mahler mariah-cherry marianne-aubert maria-tortuga marie-anne marie-christine-chireix marie-christine-veroda marie-claude-moreau marie-dominique-cabannes marie-france-morel marie-luise-lusewitz marie-sharp marilyn-chambers marilyne-leroy marilyn-gee marilyn-jess marilyn-martyn marilyn-star marina-hedman marion-webb marita-ekberg marita-kemper marlena marlene-willoughby marry-queen martine-grimaud martine-schultz maryanne-fisher mary-hubay mary-ramunno mary-stuart mascha-mouton maud-kennedy mauvais-denoir maxine-tyler maya-black maya-france megan-leigh megan-martinez megan-reece mei-ling melanie-hotlips melanie-scott melba-cruz melinda-russell melissa-bonsardo melissa-del-prado melissa-golden melissa-martinez melissa-melendez melissa-monet mercedes-dragon mercedes-lynn merle-michaels mesha-lynn mia-beck mia-lina mia-smiles michele-raven michelle-aston michelle-ferrari michelle-greco michelle-maren michelle-maylene michelle-monroe micki-lynn mika-barthel mika-tan mikki-taylor mimi-morgan mindy-rae ming-toy miranda-stevens miss-bunny miss-meadow miss-pomodoro missy missy-graham missy-stone missy-vega misti-jane mistress-candice misty-anderson misty-dawn misty-rain misty-regan mona-lisa mona-page moni monica-baal monica-swinn monika-peta monika-sandmayr monika-unco monique-bruno monique-cardin monique-charell monique-demoan monique-gabrielle monique-la-belle morgan-fairlane morrigan-hel moxxie-maddron mulani-rivera mysti-may nadege-arnaud nadia-styles nadine-bronx nadine-proutnal nadine-roussial nadi-phuket nanci-suiter nancy-hoffman nancy-vee natacha-delyro natalia-wood natalli-diangelo natascha-throat natasha-skyler naudia-nyce nessa-devil nessy-grant nesty nicki-hunter nicky-reed nicole-berg nicole-bernard nicole-black nicole-grey nicole-london nicole-parks nicole-scott nicole-taylor nicolette-fauludi nicole-west nika-blond nika-mamic niki-cole nikita-love nikita-rush nikki-charm nikki-grand nikki-king nikki-knight nikki-randall nikki-rhodes nikki-santana nikki-steele nikki-wilde niko nina-cherry nina-deponca nina-hartley nina-preta oana-efria obaya-roberts olesja-derevko olga-cabaeva olga-conti olga-pechova olga-petrova olivia-alize olivia-del-rio olivia-flores olivia-la-roche olivia-outre ophelia-tozzi orchidea-keresztes orsolya-blonde paige-turner paisley-hunter pamela-bocchi pamela-jennings pamela-mann pamela-stanford pamela-stealt pandora paola-albini pascale-vital pat-manning pat-rhea patricia-dale patricia-diamond patricia-kennedy patricia-rhomberg patrizia-predan patti-cakes patti-petite paula-brasile paula-harlow paula-morton paula-price paula-winters pauline-teutscher penelope-pumpkins penelope-valentin petra-hermanova petra-lamas peyton-lafferty phaedra-grant pia-snow piper-fawn pipi-anderson porsche-lynn porsha-carrera precious-silver priscillia-lenn purple-passion queeny-love rachel-ashley rachel-love rachel-luv rachel-roxxx rachel-ryan rachel-ryder racquel-darrian rane-revere raven reagan-maddux rebecca-bardoux regan-anthony regine-bardot regula-mertens reina-leone reka-gabor renae-cruz renee-foxx renee-lovins renee-morgan renee-perez renee-summers renee-tiffany rhonda-jo-petty rikki-blake riley-ray rio-mariah rita-ricardo roberta-gemma roberta-pedon robin-byrd robin-cannes robin-everett robin-sane rochell-starr rosa-lee-kimball rosemarie roxanne-blaze roxanne-hall roxanne-rollan ruby-richards sabina-k sabre sabrina-chimaera sabrina-dawn sabrina-jade sabrina-johnson sabrina-love-cox sabrina-mastrolorenzi sabrina-rose sabrina-scott sabrina-summers sacha-davril sahara sahara-sands sai-tai-tiger samantha-fox samantha-ryan samantha-sterlyng samantha-strong samueline-de-la-rosa sandra-cardinale sandra-de-marco sandra-kalermen sandra-russo sandy-lee sandy-pinney sandy-reed sandy-samuel sandy-style sandy-summers sara-brandy-canyon sara-faye sarah-bernard sarah-cabrera sarah-hevyn sarah-mills sarah-shine sara-sloane sasha sasha-hollander sasha-ligaya sasha-rose satine-phoenix satin-summer savannah-stern savanna-jane scarlet-scarleau scarlet-windsor seka selena serena serena-south severine-amoux shana-evans shanna-mccullough shannon-kelly shannon-rush shantell-day sharon-da-vale sharon-kane sharon-mitchell shaun-michelle shawna-sexton shawnee-cates shay-hendrix shayne-ryder sheena-horne sheer-delight shelby-star shelby-stevens shelly-berlin shelly-lyons sheri-st-clair sheyla-cats shonna-lynn shyla-foxxx shy-love sierra-sinn sierra-skye sigrun-theil silver-starr silvia-bella silvia-saint silvie-de-lux silvy-taylor simone-west sindee-coxx sindy-lange sindy-shy siobhan-hunter skylar-knight skylar-price skyler-dupree smokie-flame smoking-mary-jane solange-shannon sonya-summers sophia-santi sophie-call sophie-duflot sophie-evans sophie-guers stacey-donovan stacy-lords stacy-moran stacy-nichols stacy-silver stacy-thorn starla-fox starr-wood stefania-bruni stella-virgin stephanie-duvalle stephanie-rage stephanie-renee stevie-taylor summer-knight summer-rose sunny-day sunset-thomas sunshine-seiber susan-hart susanne-brend susan-nero susi-hotkiss suzanne-mcbain suzan-nielsen suzie-bartlett suzie-carina suzi-sparks sweet-nice sweety-pie sybille-rossani sylvia-benedict sylvia-bourdon sylvia-brand sylvia-engelmann syreeta-taylor syren-de-mer syvette szabina-black szilvia-lauren tai-ellis taija-rae taisa-banx talia-james tamara-lee tamara-longley tamara-n-joy tamara-west tami-white tammy tammy-lee tammy-reynolds tania-lorenzo tantala-ray tanya-danielle tanya-fox tanya-foxx tanya-lawson tanya-valis tara-aire tasha-voux tatjana-belousova tatjana-skomorokhova tawnee-lee tawny-pearl tayla-rox taylor-wane teddi-austin teddi-barrett tera-bond tera-heart tera-joy teresa-may teresa-orlowski teri-diver teri-weigel terri-dolan terri-hall tess-ferre tess-newheart thais-vieira tia-cherry tianna tiara tiffany-blake tiffany-clark tiffany-duponte tiffany-rayne tiffany-rousso tiffany-storm tiffany-towers tiffany-tyler tiger-lily tigr timea-vagvoelgyi tina-blair tina-burner tina-evil tina-gabriel tina-loren tina-marie tina-russell tish-ambrose tommi-rose tonisha-mills topsy-curvey tori-secrets tori-sinclair tori-welles tracey-adams traci-lords traci-topps traci-winn tracy-duzit tracy-love tracy-williams tricia-devereaux tricia-yen trinity-loren trisha-rey trista-post trixie-tyler ultramax ursula-gaussmann ursula-moore uschi-karnat valentina valerie-leveau valery-hilton vanessa-chase vanessa-del-rio vanessa-michaels vanessa-ozdanic vanilla-deville velvet-summers veri-knotty veronica-dol veronica-hart veronica-hill veronica-rayne veronica-sage veronika-vanoza via-paxton vicky-lindsay vicky-vicci victoria-evans victoria-gold victoria-knight victoria-luna victoria-paris victoria-slick victoria-zdrok viper virginie-caprice vivian-valentine vivien-martines wendi-white wendy-divine whitney-banks whitney-fears whitney-wonders wonder-tracey wow-nikki xanthia-berstein yasmine-fitzgerald yelena-shieffer yvonne-green zara-whites zsanett-egerhazi zuzie-boobies

Figure of a bolt in shear stress Top figure illustrates single shear bottom figure illustrates double shear Structural engineering depends upon a detailed knowledge of applied mechanics materials science and applied mathematics to understand and predict how structures support and resist self weight and imposed loads To apply the knowledge successfully a structural engineer generally requires detailed knowledge of relevant empirical and theoretical design codes the techniques of structural analysis as well as some knowledge of the corrosion resistance of the materials and structures especially when those structures are exposed to the external environment Since the s specialist software has become available to aid in the design of structures with the functionality to assist in the drawing analyzing and designing of structures with maximum precision examples include AutoCAD StaadPro ETABS Prokon Revit Structure etc Such software may also take into consideration environmental loads such as from earthquakes and winds Materials edit Main article Structural material Structural engineering depends on the knowledge of materials and their properties in order to understand how different materials support and resist loads Common structural materials are Iron Wrought iron Cast iron Concrete Reinforced concrete Prestressed concrete Alloy Steel Stainless steel Masonry Timber Hardwood Softwood Aluminium Composite materials Plywood Other structural materials Adobe Bamboo Carbon fibre Fiber reinforced plastic Mudbrick Roofing materials Architectural drawing – or architect's drawing a technical drawing of a building or building project Architectural design competition – specialist competition inviting architects to submit design proposals for a project Blueprint – an obsolete paper based method of reproducing technical drawings producing a distinctive appearance white lines on a blue background The word is still in use as a by word for a design solution "a blueprint for future developments" Brief architecture – a written statement of a client's requirements for a building project Building code – or building control a set of rules that specify the minimum acceptable level of safety and environmental performance in building construction Construction law – a branch of law that deals with matters relating to building construction Cost accounting or cost management– a vital activity in connection with building generally performed by a specialist quantity surveyor Construction projects are notoriously subject to cost overruns caused by changing circumstances or by failure to fully allow for foreseeable costs during budgeting Project management – the process of managing all the activities involved in a construction project including adherence to the design and local legislation costs and payment and verification of project completion Architecture prizes edit Architecture prize – Architecture prizes are generally awarded for completed projects and are chosen from publicised or nominated works not from submissions by the originating architect The RIBA Royal Gold Medal has in fact been refused on a number of occasions Aga Khan Award for Architecture AKAA – an architectural prize established by Aga Khan IV in awarded for achievements in design and planning in Islamic societies AIA Gold Medal – awarded by the American Institute of Architects for a significant body of work 'of lasting influence on the theory and practice of architecture' first awarded European Union Prize for Contemporary Architecture also known as the Mies van der Rohe Award – awarded jointly by the European Union and the Fundacia Mies van der Rohe Barcelona 'to acknowledge and reward quality architectural production in Europe' Pritzker Architecture Prize – awarded annually to "a living architect whose built work demonstrates a combination of those qualities of talent vision and commitment which has produced consistent and significant contributions to humanity and the built environment through the art of architecture" Founded in by Jay A Pritzker and his wife Cindy the award is often referred to as the Nobel Prize of architecture RIBA Royal Gold Medal – awarded annually since by the Royal Institute of British Architects for an individual's or group's substantial contribution to international architecture It is given for a distinguished body of work rather than for one building Carbuncle Cup – unlike the mainstream awards which reward perceived merit this is awarded annually by the UK magazine Building Design to 'the ugliest building in the United Kingdom completed in the last months' more Related fields edit Architectural conservation – repair and restoration of buildings especially historic structures Construction – the process of creating physical structures Building construction – construction specific to buildings Civil engineering – the design construction and maintenance of the physical environment e g bridges canals dams drainage systems and roads etc Building services engineering – the design of heating ventilation and cooling and other mechanical systems electrical power and lighting Structural engineering – the analysis and design of structures that support or resist loads Sustainable design – provides expertise in improving the environmental performance of buildings Interior design – the design of interior finishes and fittings Urban Design Urban planning urban city and town planning – a technical and legal process concerned with controlling the design of structures and the use of land Hadrian's Wall Public buildings edit Baths of Trajan – these were a massive thermae a bathing and leisure complex built in ancient Rome starting from AD and dedicated during the Kalends of July in Baths of Diocletian – in ancient Rome these were the grandest of the public baths thermae built by successive emperors Baths of Caracalla Colosseum Trajan's Column in Rome Circus Maximus in Rome Curia Hostilia Senate House in Rome Domus Aurea former building Pantheon Tower of Hercules Tropaeum Traiani Hadrian's Villa Verona Arena in Verona Private architecture edit Alyscamps – a necropolis in Arles France one of the most famous necropolises of the ancient world Domus Catacombs of Rome Roman villa Civil engineering edit Roman engineering – Romans are famous for their advanced engineering accomplishments although some of their own inventions were improvements on older ideas concepts and inventions Roman watermill Military engineering edit Antonine Wall in Scotland Hadrian's Wall Limes Germanicus In Roman times The first historians used their works for the lauding of Roman culture and customs By the end of Republic some historians distorted their histories to flatter their patrons—especially at the time of Marius's and Sulla's clash Caesar wrote his own histories to make a complete account of his military campaigns in Gaul and during the Civil War In the Empire the biographies of famous men and early emperors flourished examples being The Twelve Caesars of Suetonius and Plutarch's Parallel Lives Other major works of Imperial times were that of Livy and Tacitus Polybius – The Histories Sallust – Bellum Catilinae and Bellum Jugurthinum Julius Caesar – De Bello Gallico and De Bello Civili Livy – Ab urbe condita Dionysius of Halicarnassus – Roman Antiquities Pliny the Elder – Naturalis Historia Josephus – The Jewish War Suetonius – The Twelve Caesars De Vita Caesarum Tacitus – Annales and Histories Plutarch – Parallel Lives a series of biographies of famous Roman and Greek men Cassius Dio – Historia Romana Herodian – History of the Roman Empire since Marcus Aurelius Ammianus Marcellinus – Res Gestae In modern times Interest in studying and even idealizing ancient Rome became prevalent during the Italian Renaissance and continues until the present day Charles Montesquieu wrote a work Reflections on the Causes of the Grandeur and Declension of the Romans The first major work was The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire by Edward Gibbon which encompassed the period from the end of nd century to the fall of the Byzantine Empire in Like Montesquieu Gibbon paid tribute to the virtue of Roman citizens Barthold Georg Niebuhr was a founder of the examination of ancient Roman history and wrote The Roman History tracing the period until the First Punic war Niebuhr tried to determine the way the Roman tradition evolved According to him Romans like other people had an historical ethos preserved mainly in the noble families During the Napoleonic period a work titled The History of Romans by Victor Duruy appeared It highlighted the Caesarean period popular at the time History of Rome Roman constitutional law and Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum all by Theodor Mommsen became very important milestones Later the work Greatness and Decline of Rome by Guglielmo Ferrero was published The Russian work ?????? ?? ??????? ???????? ????????????? ??????????????? ? ????? ??????? The Outlines on Roman Landownership History Mainly During the Empire by Ivan Grevs contained information on the economy of Pomponius Atticus one of the largest landowners at the end of the Republic Edward Gibbon – – The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire John Bagnall Bury – – History of the Later Roman Empire Michael Grant – – The Roman World Barbara Levick born – Claudius Barthold Georg Niebuhr – Michael Rostovtzeff – Howard Hayes Scullard – – The History of the Roman World Ronald Syme – – The Roman Revolution Adrian Goldsworthy born – Caesar The Life of a Colossus and How Rome fell References Background edit From his filiation Spurius Cassius S f S n Viscellinus we know that Cassius' father and grandfather were both named Spurius According to one tradition his father was still living and hale at the time of his death If this were the case it would be difficult to place Cassius' birth much earlier than or BC Cassius also left behind him three sons whose names have not been preserved It is believed that the Cassii Viscellini were patricians although the later members of the gens occurring in history were all plebeian The historian Niebuhr suggests that Cassius' sons may have been expelled by the patricians from their order or that they or their descendants may have voluntarily passed over to the plebeians because the patricians had shed the blood of their father Magistracies edit Cassius' first consulship was in BC the eighth year of the Republic His colleague was Opiter Verginius Tricostus Dionysius reports that Cassius carried on war against the Sabines whom he defeated with great loss near Cures The Sabines sued for peace and surrendered a large portion of their land On his return to Rome Cassius celebrated his first triumph which is confirmed by the Fasti Triumphales Livius however states that the two consuls carried on war against the Aurunci and took the town of Suessa Pometia The same events he reports under BC which is in agreement with Dionysius Thus Dionysius probably preserves the correct account In the following year Titus Lartius Flavus was appointed the first dictator and as his magister equitum he nominated Cassius The reason for the institution of these offices was the fear of impending war with both the Sabines and the Latins After a failed round of negotiations war was declared against the Sabines but as both sides were reluctant to come to blows no hostilities ensued War with the Latins came in BC with the Battle of Lake Regillus Following the Roman victory Cassius is said to have urged the senate to destroy the Latin towns Cassius was consul for the second time in BC with Postumus Cominius Auruncus The consuls entered upon their office during the secession of the plebs to the Mons Sacer The strife between the patricians and plebeians was a recurring theme throughout the early history of the Republic and in time cost Cassius his life In contrast with his former position Cassius ratified a treaty with the Latins on Rome's behalf thereby removing one source of danger to the fledgling Republic The treaty became known as the Foedus Cassianum bearing the consul's name Cicero related that a copy of the treaty was still extant in his day and its terms are summarized by Dionysius Later the same year Cassius consecrated the temple of Ceres Bacchus and Proserpina In BC Cassius was consul for the third time with Proculus Verginius Tricostus Rutilus Cassius marched against the Volsci and Hernici but they sued for peace and once again showing his talent for diplomacy Cassius formed a league with the Hernici The alliances secured by Cassius with both the Latins and Hernici placed the Republic in the same position it had enjoyed under the kings Livius states that the Hernici agreed to surrender two thirds of their land but a more likely explanation is that the Romans Latins and Hernici agreed to share their acquired land evenly with each receiving one third of the lands conquered by their mutual arms This treaty held for over a hundred years On his return Cassius celebrated his second triumph Trial and execution edit Main article Agrarian law § Proposed land distribution in BC After concluding the treaty with the Hernici Cassius proposed the first agrarian law at Rome arguing for the land to be distributed amongst the plebs and the Latin allies Cassius' colleague Verginius and the patricians strongly opposed the law Debate and discord ensued and the plebs turned against Cassius suspecting him of aiming at regal power In BC once Cassius had left office he was condemned and executed Livy says that the method of his trial is uncertain Livy's preferred version is that a public trial on the charge of high treason was held on the orders of the quaestores parricidii Kaeso Fabius and Lucius Valerius at which Cassius was condemned by the people and subsequently by public decree his house was demolished being near the temple of Tellus The alternative version is that Cassius' own father conducted a private trial presumably exercising authority as pater familias and put his son to death and subsequently dedicated his son's assets to the goddess Ceres including by dedicating a statue to her with the inscription ""given from the Cassian family" Dionysius states that he was hurled from the Tarpeian Rock Niebuhr argues that it was impossible that a man who had been thrice consul and twice triumphed should still be in his father's power Cassius Dio expressed his belief in the consul's innocence In BC the statue of Cassius erected on the spot of his house was melted down by the censors Some seem to have called for the execution of Cassius' sons also but according to Dionysius they were spared by the senate Chronological uncertainty edit The chronographer E J Bickerman has suggested that Cassius' third consulship occurred in BC the same year as the Battle of Salamis However this assertion rests on the accuracy of Diodorus Siculus who stated that his consulship coincided with the archonship of Calliades in Athens Calliades was archon in BC Herodotus confirms the possibility that the battles of Thermopylae and Salamis were fought shortly after the Olympic Games of that year and only a few months after these events "On approach of spring the sun suddenly quit his seat in the heavens and disappeared" when Xerxes left Sardis a few weeks or months before crossing over to Greece This eclipse occurred on February BC providing a valuable chronological reference The consul Verginius led his legions against the Volsci He defeated the Volscian army and pursued the enemy to Velitrae where the Volscian army was slaughtered The lands of Velitrae were seized for Rome The dictator led his troops against the Sabine army and won a great victory only exceeded at this time by the battle of Lake Regillus in its renown and celebrated a triumph as a result Meanwhile the consul Veturius took his legions into Latin territory to deal with the marauding Aequi However the Aequi fled to the safety of the mountains The consul pursued them but found the Aequi camped on a strategically advantageous site which was difficult to approach He proposed to wait however his troops complained that they desired to return to Rome because of the ongoing political and social unreast and forced the consul to launch an attack The boldness of the attack was such that the Aequi were frightened into flight from their camp and the Romans thereby achieved a victory without shedding blood and with the capture of much booty in the Aequian camp Climax and secession edit The armies returned to Rome The dictator determined to deal with the outstanding problem of debt asked the senate to address the problem However the senate refused The dictator frustrated then harangued the senate for the obstinacy and their opposition to concord and he refused to remain dictator whilst the senate refused to act and therefore resigned from office As he returned to his home the people applauded him for his efforts The senate were then compelled by fear of further sedition to take some action Accordingly on the pretext of some renewed hostlities by the Aequi the senate ordered the legions to be led out of the city The people were outraged by this turn of events In order to avoid their military oath the people contemplated murdering the consuls however it was observed that a criminal act could not absolve them of their oath which was holy in its nature One plebeian Lucius Sicinius Vellutus then advocated that the people should secede from Roman and take themselves to the Sacred Mount which lay three miles from the city beyond the river Anio and the people followed Sicinius' advice Livy records another version set out in the history of Piso that the people instead proceeded to the Aventine Hill however Livy doubts Piso's version on the basis that the Mons Sacer is preferred by the majority of historians The plebeians made camp on the Mons Sacer with fortifications consisting of a rampart and trench There they waited for a number of days showing no signs of either intimidation or aggression Reconciliation and reform edit Fear now gripped the city The plebeians remaining there feared what steps the senate would take and likewise the senate feared the remaining people and also those who had seceded The senate therefore resolved to negotiate with the plebeians on the Mons Sacer with a view to concord being restored The former consul Agrippa Menenius Lanatus was selected as an envoy to the people on account of his eloquence and also because of his popularity which was due Livy says to his being descended from plebeians although precisely what is meant by this is unclear Menenius was admitted to the plebeian camp and simply told the plebeians a fable about the necessity of all the parts of the body to work together because all parts depend upon each other for their own success and survival By this he impressed upon the plebeians the importance of each part of the Roman republic to each other part and the need for a reconciliation A resolution was then negotiated and agreed It provided for the appointment of a new class of magistrates called Tribunes elected from amongst the plebeians and designed to represent plebeian interests against the power of the patrician consuls There were initially five tribunes selected Livy says initially two were chosen and those two selected an additional three They included Lucius Albinius Paterculus Gaius Licinius and Lucius Sicinius Vellutus who had led the people to the Mons Sacer Additionally the person of a tribune was made sacrosanct so that any person who harmed a tribune was liable to punishment by death Livy also reports that the consular year of BC commenced during the secession of the plebs and the new consuls elected were Postumus Cominius Auruncus and Spurius Cassius Viscellinus Aftermath edit Livy reports that there was famine in Rome in BC which came about because the plebeian farmers had not sown their crops during the secession The consuls arranged for the import of grain from Etruria to address the shortage An even greater amount of grain was imported the following year from Sicily and the question of how it should be distributed amongst the Roman citizens together with tensions arising from the secession led to the exile and defection of Gaius Marcius Coriolanus after he unsuccessfully advocated the reversal of the reforms which arose from the secession including the creation of the office References Bibliography See also Secessions in Roman history edit BC edit Main article First secessio plebis in BC The Secession of the People to the Mons Sacer engraving by B Barloccini Beginning in BC and culminating in BC as a result of concerns about debt and the failure of the senate to provide for plebeian welfare the plebeians seceded to the Mons Sacer the Sacred Mountain As part of a negotiated resolution the patricians freed some of the plebs from their debts and conceded some of their power by creating the office of the Tribune of the Plebs This office was the first government position held by the plebs since at this time the office of consul was held by patricians solely Plebeian Tribunes were made personally sacrosanct during their period in office BC edit The Second Secessio Plebis of BC was caused by the abuses of a commission of the decemviri ten men and involved demands for the restoration of the plebeian tribunes the representatives of the plebeians and of the right to appeal which had been suspended In BC Rome decided to appoint the commission of the decemviri which was tasked with compiling a law code which became the Law of the Twelve Tables The commission was given a term of one year during which the offices of state were suspended The decemviri were also exempted from appeal In BC they issued a set of laws but did not resign at the end of their term and became abusive They killed a soldier who had been a plebeian tribune and who criticised them One of the decemviri Appius Claudius Crassus tried to force a woman Verginia to marry him To prevent this her father stabbed her and cursed Appius Claudius Crassus This sparked riots which started with the crowd which witnessed the incident and spread to the army which was encamped outside the city The people went to the Aventine Hill The senate tried to get the decemviri to resign but they refused The people decided to withdraw en masse to Mons Sacer like in the first secession The senate blamed this on the decemviri and managed to force them to resign It sent two senators Lucius Valerus Potitus and Marcus Horatius Barbatus to Mons Sacer to negotiate The people demanded the restoration of the plebeian tribunes and the right to appeal which had been suspended during the term of the decemviri This was agreed and they returned to the Aventine Hill and elected their tribunes Lucius Valerius Potitus and Marcus Horatius Barbatus became the consuls the two annually elected heads of the Republic for BC They introduced new laws which strengthened the rights of the plebeians The lex Valeria Horatia de plebiscìtis provided that the laws passed by the Plebeian Council were binding of all Roman citizens that is both patricians and plebeians despite patrician opposition to laws passed by this assembly being binding on them However after being passed these laws had to receive the approval of the senate acutoritas partum This meant that the senate could veto the laws passed by the plebeians Lex Valeria Horatia de senatus consulta ordered that the senatus consulta the decrees of the senate had to be kept in the temple of Ceres by the plebeian aediles the assistants of the plebeian tribunes This meant that the plebeian tribunes and aediles had knowledge of these decrees previously they were kept secret This put them in the public domain Previously the consuls had been in the habit of suppressing or altering them The lex Valeria Horatia de provocatio forbade the creation of offices of state which not subject to appeal BC edit The third secession is alluded to by Florus Lex Canuleia BC edit This fourth secession is noted by Livy The Oxford Classical Dictionary calls this an "obscure military revolt" BC edit In February Strike Netherlands Luxembourgian General Strike Indian General Strike Oakland California General Strike Austrian General Strikes General strike against Leopold III of Belgium Hartal Ceylon General strike of Honduras Finnish General Strike Bahamas General Strike Winter General Strike in Belgium French General Strike Uruguayan General Strike Ulster Workers Council Strike Northern Ireland Uruguayan General Strike Spanish General Strike Two hour general strike of all citizens of Czechoslovakia during the Velvet Revolution Nepalese General Strike French Public Sector Strikes Days of Action Canada Cochabamba General Strike Bolivia Italian General Strike – Venezuelan General Strike Bolivian Gas Conflict Mother Daughter Affair Video Jane Non Sex Role as Jane 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Countess Doble decepción TV Movie in the Lithuanian Bravo Awards and the Best Baltic Act at the MTV Europe Music Awards Jonas Švedas – composer Michael Tchaban composer singer and songwriter Violeta Urmanaviciute Urmana opera singer soprano mezzosoprano appearing internationally Painters and graphic artists edit See also List of Lithuanian artists Robertas Antinis – sculptor Vytautas Ciplijauskas lt Vytautas Ciplijauskas painter Jonas Ceponis – lt Jonas Ceponis painter Mikalojus Konstantinas Ciurlionis – painter and composer Asteroid Ciurlionis is named for him Kostas Dereškevicius lt Kostas Dereškevicius painter Vladimiras Dubeneckis painter architect Stasys Eidrigevicius graphic artist Pranas Gailius lt Pranas Gailius painter Paulius Galaune Petronele Gerlikiene – self taught Lithuanian American artist Algirdas Griškevicius lt Algirdas Griškevicius Vincas Grybas – sculptor Leonardas Gutauskas lt Leonardas Gutauskas painter writer Vytautas Kairiukštis – lt Vytautas Kairiukštis painter art critic Vytautas Kasiulis – lt Vytautas Kasiulis painter graphic artist stage designer Petras Kalpokas painter Rimtas Kalpokas – lt Rimtas Kalpokas painter graphic artist Leonas Katinas – lt Leonas Katinas painter Povilas Kaupas – lt Povilas Kaupas Algimantas Kezys Lithuanian American photographer Vincas Kisarauskas – lt Vincas Kisarauskas painter graphic artist stage designer Saulute Stanislava Kisarauskiene – lt Saulute Stanislava Kisarauskiene graphic artist painter Stasys Krasauskas – lt Stasys Krasauskas graphic artist Stanislovas Kuzma – lt Stanislovas Kuzma sculptor Antanas Martinaitis – lt Antanas Martinaitis painter Jonas Rimša – lt Jonas Rimša painter Jan Rustem painter Antanas Samuolis – lt Antanas Samuolis painter Šarunas Sauka painter Boris Schatz – sculptor and founder of the Bezalel Academy Irena Sibley née Pauliukonis – Children s book author and illustrator Algis Skackauskas – painter Antanas Žmuidzinavicius – painter Franciszek Smuglewicz – painter Yehezkel Streichman Israeli painter Kazys Šimonis – painter Algimantas Švegžda – lt Algimantas Švegžda painter Otis Tamašauskas Lithographer Print Maker Graphic Artist Adolfas Valeška – painter and graphic artist Adomas Varnas – painter Kazys Varnelis – artist Vladas Vildžiunas lt Vladas Vildžiunas sculptor Mikalojus Povilas Vilutis lt Mikalojus Povilas Vilutis graphic artist Viktoras Vizgirda – painter William Zorach – Modern artist who died in Bath Maine Antanas Žmuidzinavicius – painter Kazimieras Leonardas Žoromskis – painter Politics edit President Valdas Adamkus right chatting with Vice President Dick Cheney left See also List of Lithuanian rulers Mindaugas – the first and only King of Lithuania – Gediminas – the ruler of Lithuania – Algirdas – the ruler together with Kestutis of Lithuania – Kestutis – the ruler together with Algirdas of Lithuania – Vytautas – the ruler of Lithuania – together with Jogaila Jogaila – the ruler of Lithuania – from to together with Vytautas the king of Poland – Jonušas Radvila – the field hetman of Grand Duchy of Lithuania – Dalia Grybauskaite – current President of Lithuania since Valdas Adamkus – President of Lithuania till Jonas Basanavicius – "father" of the Act of Independence of Algirdas Brazauskas – the former First secretary of Central Committee of Communist Party of Lithuanian SSR the former president of Lithuania after and former Prime Minister of Lithuania Joe Fine – mayor of Marquette Michigan – Kazys Grinius – politician third President of Lithuania Mykolas Krupavicius – priest behind the land reform in interwar Lithuania Vytautas Landsbergis – politician professor leader of Sajudis the independence movement former speaker of Seimas member of European Parliament Stasys Lozoraitis – diplomat and leader of Lithuanian government in exile – Stasys Lozoraitis junior – politician diplomat succeeded his father as leader of Lithuanian government in exile – Antanas Merkys – the last Prime Minister of interwar Lithuania Rolandas Paksas – former President removed from the office after impeachment Justas Paleckis – journalist and politician puppet Prime Minister after Soviet occupation Kazimiera Prunskiene – the first female Prime Minister Mykolas Sleževicius – three times Prime Minister organized

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Eating Out with the Girls Video Interview with Raylene Video Raylene Love Games Video Sex with a Stranger Video Zoom Video Paparazzi Video Always Lily White Video Ivy In Your Face Video Where the Boys Aren't Video Best of Me Video Raylene Big Bust Bash Video Couch Tails Video Dr Feelright Carol Femme II Video For the Love of Feet Video Made in America Video Aide to Sen George Peckers Video Their Cheatin' Ways Video Weekend Warriors Video Where the Boys Aren't Video The Trophy Video Donna Speedway Video Ivy Jade Princess Video Mimi Dethroned Video Love My Wife Please Video Red Video Wildlife Video Hours Video Action Sports Sex Video As Sweet as They Come Video A Woman's Needs Video Backstage Sluts Video Rock N' Roll Fan Blowjob Adventures of Dr Fellatio Video Bunghole Harlots Opening Day Gape Video Harlot Conjugal Visits Video Exile Video Melinda Forever Night Video Ghostly Lover Her Wicked Obsession Video I Believe in Love Part Video Manic Behavior Video Rocki Roads' Wet Dreams Video The Last Day Video The Ultimate Glamour Blowjob Video Lap Top Video I Public Affairs Video Raylene Miller Wicked Covergirls Video Masterpiece Video Model Head Over Heels Video Night Hunger Video Heather Best of Shane Video Habits of the Heart Video I Love Lesbians Video Up and Cummers Video John Douglas Himself Dave Michaels Dave Michaels Himself Lisa Ann Lisa Ann Herself Anal Angels Video Wendy Has Whoppers Video Deep Cover Video American Dream Girls Christy Canyon Video Bad Girls Ridin' Into Town Video Celeste Bedlam Video Celeste Borderline Video Julia Captured Beauty Video Caught in the Act Video Monica Alby Dangerous Curves Video Exposure Video Elizabeth Sadler Nylon Video Reckless Passion Video Darlene Banner Stasha's Adult School Video Trouble Maker Video Shayne Elements of Desire Video Hoods Poolside Strapped Sex Under Glass Couple # Talking Blue TV Series Borderline II The Stranger Video Julia Back to Anal Alley Video Chain Gang Video Officer Turner Chateau du Cheeks Video Crazy with the Heat Video Fantasy Women Video Hollywood Ho' House Video Let's Face It Video Pajama Party X Video Poison Video Veronica Woods Poor Little Rich Girl Part Video Gretchin Private Property Short Martine Sex Drive Video Carla Firestone Sexy Nurses Video Sindy's Sexercise Workout Video Sindy Crawlforward Sindy Does Anal Again Video Sindy Crawlforward The Bust Things in Life Video The Look Video The Torturous Infidel Video Tortured Passions Video Up and Cummers Video Bustin' Out My Best Video Confesiones obscenas Video Pornomania Video Anal Maniacs Video Paulina McCullough Alexandria I Love You Video Anal Ski Vacation Video Backdoor Brides Video Backdoor to Harleywood III Video Bigtown Video Alice Black Tie Affair Video Bustin' Thru Video Buttslammers The Awakening of Felecia Video Dial N Again Video Euroslut French Tart Video I Heaven Scent Video Heidi Does Hollywood Video Hollywood Scandal The Heidi Flesh Story Video Heidi Flesh I Made Marian Video Immortal Desire Video Mary Nobody's Looking Video Plan from Outer Space Video Another Beautiful Rocket Scientist Poor Little Rich Girl Part Video Greta Porn in the Pen Video Tiffany Pussyman The Search Continues Video Pussyman The Celebration Video Raunch Video Reds Video Saturday Night Porn III Video Shiver Video Sindy Does Annal Video Sindy Crawlforward Southern Cumfort Video Debbie Ringer The Bet Video The Natural Video Rebecca Bardoux Victoria Sterling Celeste Celeste Your Mom's Twat Is Hot Vol Owner Gets Clipped Video My Friend's Hot Mom Video Mother Superior Video Mother Superior Grease XXX A Parody Video Mrs McGee Lesbian Stepmother Video Cytherea Is a Lesbian Squirt Machine Video Teacher's Got a Tight Pussy Video Facial Overload MILF Edition Video It's Okay She's My Mother in Law Video Seduced by Mommy Video Cougars Crave Young Kittens Video It's Okay She's My Mother in Law Video Mother Daughter Exchange Club Video Mothers Teaching Daughters How to Suck Cock Video MILFBusters Video MILF # segment "Sex Bomb" Mother Daughter Exchange Club Video Masturbation Nation Video Like Father Like Son Video Cum Hungry Cocksuckers Video Mother Daughter Exchange Club Video Fuck My Mom & Me Video Say Hi to Your Mother for Me Video Seasoned Players Video Anything Goes Video MILF Fever Video Milf Seeker Vol Video as Rebecca Older Bolder Better Video Fantastic 's and Anal Video Forty and Furry Video M I L F Cruiser Video M i l f t Video Room for Rent Video School of Porn Video Any Dorm in a Storm Video Big Tit Prison Video Older and Lesbian Video The Assignment Video Miranda Big Boob Lesbian Cops Video Glazed and Confused Video Rebecca Barbara Broadcast Too Video Restaurant Patron Tootsie Customer Don't Tell Mommy Video Don't Tell Mommy Video Hooter Nation Video Loose Morals Video M I L T F Video Naughty Little Nymphos Video Older Women & Younger Women Video Squirting Adventures of Dr G Video Swirl Video Mother Teacher's Pet Video Teacher for Detention The Negro in Mrs Jones Video The Violation of Jessica Darlin Video Video Dames Video Cyberwhore Older and Anal Video Heart Breaker Video Isabella Blowjob Adventures of Dr Fellatio Video Hot Rod Chicks Video Charlene House of Decadence Video Lusty Busty Dolls Video Pussyman Enough for Everybody Video Dirty Bob's Xcellent Adventures Video Pocahotass Video Deep Inside Juli Ashton Video Scene from 'The Butt Detective' Klimaxx Video Pussyman Girls Who Gush Video Sodomania Slop Shots Video Buck Fucking Adams Butt Hunt Video Then and Now # Video Extreme Sex el experimento Video Anal Adventures of Bruce Seven Video Bad Girls Maximum Babes Video Leslie Beaver & Buttface Video Big Knockers Video Bustin' Out My Best Anal Video Exposure Video Glenda Firm Offer Video Generation X Video Hotel California Video I Lessons in Love Video Mary Pussyman Prime Cuts Video Rebel Cheerleaders Video Wildcat Cheerleader Ring of Desire Video The Girls of Bel Air Video Investigación anal Video Elvis Girl Límite horas Video Dun Hur Video Talking Blue TV Series El club del placer y el éxtasis Video Ass Openers Video Cheating Hearts Video Cumming of Ass Video Hotel Sodom Video Peter Pops Video Above the Knee Video Badd Girls Video Bare Ass Beach Video Big Knockers Video Big Knockers Video Blonde Justice # Video Ginger Body of Innocence Video Kendra Hart Boiling Point Video Erotika Video Lorna Flesh for Fantasy Video Dagmar Ghosts Video Junkyard Dykes Video Pajama Party X Video Pajama Party X Video Pussyman Captive Audience Video Pussyman House of Games Video Rainbird Video Seymore Butts Goes Deep Inside Shane Video Tempted Video Sondra The Breast Files Video The Corruption of Christina Video The Spa Video Rachel Wedding Vows Video Anal Mystique Video Bustin' Out My Best Video Junkyard Dykes Video Woman in Dress Pornomania Video The Butt Sisters Do Detroit Video Adult Video Nudes Video A Few Good Rears Video Letter carrier All the Girls Are Buttslammers Video Always Video Valerie Anal Distraction Video Anal Extasy Girls Video as Rebecca Bardeaux Anal Intruder Video Anal Urge Video A Stroke at Midnight Video Beaver and Buttcheeks Video Buttcheeks Bedazzled Video Behind the Backdoor Video Between the Cheeks III Video Bigtown Video Mary as Rebecca Barboux Bikini Beach Video Rebecca Bardoux Bikini Beach Video Bikini Beach Video Brother Act Video as Miss Becky Bardoux Cheerleader Nurses Video Mary Kay County Line Video Death Dancers Nude Dancer Dirty Little Lies Video Double Down Video Euphoria Video Extreme Passion Video June 12: Major League Baseball pitching star Dock Ellis takes LSD and throws a no-hitter. Ellis later quits drugs, becomes a recovery counselor, and expresses deep regret over drug abuse during his entire playing career.[441][442] June 13: President Nixon appoints the President's Commission on Campus Unrest. The report issued in September finds a direct correlation between the unrest and the level of US military involvement in Indochina. June 15: The US Supreme Court confirms conscientious objector protection on moral grounds. June 22: The US voting age is lowered to 18. This is soon challenged and overturned in the Supreme Court, leading to the swift adoption of the 26th Amendment on June 1, 1971 guaranteeing suffrage at 18. June 27–28: Bath Festival of Blues and Progressive Music, Shepton Mallet, Somerset, UK, featuring Hot Tuna, Fleetwood Mac, Led Zeppelin, Pink Floyd and many more. July: Huston Plan: A broad, cross-agency scheme for illegal domestic surveillance of anti-war figures is concocted by a White House staffer, and accepted but then quickly quashed by President Nixon. Elements of the plan were, however, allegedly implemented in any event.[443][444][445] August 6: Riot police evacuate Disneyland in Anaheim, CA after a few hundred Yippies stage a protest. August 17: Communist activist Angela Davis appears on the FBI's Ten Most Wanted list after a firearm purchased in her name is linked to a murder plot involving a judge. August 24: The Sterling Hall Bombing at the University of Wisconsin in Madison by anti-war activists kills physics researcher Robert Fassnacht. Four others are severely injured, and millions of dollars in damages occur.[446] August 26: Women's Strike for Equality: 50 years after US women's suffrage, 20,000 celebrate and march in New York City, demanding true equality for women in American life.[447] August 26–31: 600,000+ attend Third Isle of Wight Festival. Over fifty acts including The Who, Hendrix, Miles Davis, The Doors, Ten Years After, ELP, Joni Mitchell, and Jethro Tull. August 29–30: Rioting and violence erupts at Chicano Moratorium anti-war rally in Los Angeles; reporter Rubén Salazar is killed by a tear gas shell. September: Jesus Christ Superstar: The Christian Rock Opera debuts as an album. It later becomes a smash on Broadway and on film.[448] September 12: Timothy Leary escapes prison with help from the Weather Underground, and joins Eldridge Cleaver in Algiers. September 16: London: Apolitical hard rock act Led Zeppelin end the Beatles' 8-year run as Melody Maker's world #1 group of the year. September 18: Exceptionally influential musician Jimi Hendrix dies from complications of a probable drug overdose at age 27 in London. September 19: Pilton Pop, Blues & Folk Festival, the first ever Glastonbury Festival, features T-Rex and is attended by 1,500 people. October: The Female Eunuch: Germaine Greer's pro-feminist bestseller is published.[449] October: Keith Stroup founds NORML, a group working to end marijuana prohibition, in Washington, DC. October 4: Janis Joplin, rock's first female superstar, dies as the result of an apparent accidental heroin overdose at age 27 in Los Angeles. October 13: Political activist Angela Davis is arrested on kidnapping, murder, and conspiracy charges. October 26: Doonesbury debuts as a syndicated comic strip, acknowledges the counterculture, and continues to chronicle events into the 21st century.[450] October 29: President Nixon is pelted with eggs by an unfriendly crowd of 2000 after giving a speech in San Jose, CA. November 7: Jerry Rubin appears live on The David Frost Show and tries to pass a joint to the talkshow host, the signal for Yippies in the audience to rush the stage and protest. December 6: The Maysles Brothers release their film documentary of Altamont: Gimme Shelter. December 21: Elvis Presley arrives unannounced at the White House. The King meets and is photographed with President Nixon. They discuss patriotism, hippies, and the war on drugs.[451][452] December: Paul McCartney sues to dissolve the Beatles. 1971[edit] January 2: The ban on cigarette advertising on US TV and radio takes effect.[453] January 12: Styled after the UK TV hit Till Death Us Do Part, the long-running US smash All in the Family debuts with Rob Reiner as Michael Stivic, the counterculture's college-educated answer to the working-class Archie Bunker.[454][455] January 31: Police fire on a peace march in Los Angeles, killing one. February 4: A military induction center in Oakland, CA is bombed. February 4–8: Rioting in Wilmington, NC leaves 2 dead. February 13: An induction center in Atlanta, GA is bombed. February 21: The UN Convention on Psychotropic Substances is signed in Vienna, with the intention of controlling psychoactive drugs such as amphetamines, barbiturates, benzodiazepines, and psychedelics at the international level.[122] March 1: The US Capitol building is bombed by war protesters; no injuries, but extensive damage results. March 5: The FCC says that it can penalize radio stations for playing music that seems to glorify or promote illegal drug usage. March 8: The Fight of the Century: Conscientious Objector and counterculture hero Muhammad Ali loses to default symbol of the pro-war right Joe Frazier at Madison Square Garden, NYC, in what is widely considered to be the greatest heavyweight fight in boxing history.[456][457][458] March 11: Rioting at University of Puerto Rico leaves 3 dead. April 23: Vietnam veterans protest against the war at the US Capitol in Washington, DC, throw their medals on the steps, and testify to US war crimes. April 24: 500,000 protesters rally at US Capitol to petition for an end to the war; 200,000 rally against the war in San Francisco. May 3: Over 12,000 anti-war protesters are arrested on the third day of the 1971 May Day Protests in Washington, DC. May 10: Attorney General John N. Mitchell compares the anti-war protesters to Nazis, and on May 13, calls them Communists. May 17: The play Godspell opens in New York, depicting Jesus and his disciples in a contemporary, countercultural milieu. May 21: Marvin Gaye releases the socially conscious album What's Going On.[422][459] May 31: US military personnel in London petition at US Embassy against the Vietnam War. June 13: Pentagon Papers: The New York Times publishes the first excerpt of illegally leaked secret US military documents detailing US intervention in Indochina since 1945. A Federal Court injunction on June 15 temporarily stops the releases.[460] June 18: The Washington Post publishes excerpts from the Pentagon Papers, halted by court order the following day. June 20–24 : 'Glastonbury Fayre', the second Glastonbury Festival, features David Bowie, Traffic, Fairport Convention, and the first incarnation of the "Pyramid Stage". June 22: The Boston Globe publishes Pentagon Papers excerpts; this is halted by injunction on the 23rd and the newspapers are impounded. June 28: Muhammad Ali's conviction for draft resistance is unanimously overturned by the US Supreme Court in Washington, DC. June 28: President Nixon releases all 47 volumes of Pentagon Papers to Congress. June 30: Supreme Court rules 6-3 that newspapers have a right to publish the Pentagon Papers. The Times and Post resume publication the following day. July 3: Jim Morrison, founding member of The Doors, dies of a probable heroin overdose at age 27 in Paris.[461] August 1: Concert for Bangladesh: George Harrison and friends including Ravi Shankar, Ringo Starr, Eric Clapton, Leon Russell, Billy Preston and Bob Dylan stage a landmark charity event in New York. Popular albums and a film follow, and the shows become a model for huge rock benefits such as Live Aid.[462] August 18: Attorney General Mitchell announces there will be no Federal investigation of the 1970 Kent State shootings. August: Cheech & Chong's eponymous first album is released. September 3: Burglars operating under the direction of White House officials break in to the office of Daniel Ellsburg's psychiatrist in a botched attempt to find files to discredit the Pentagon Papers leaker.[463] September 9: Attica: Prisoners take control, hold hostages, and riot at Attica State Prison, NY. 39 die before prisoner demands are met and order is restored. September 15: Greenpeace is founded in Vancouver, BC. October: est, the controversial self-improvement training program holds its first conference in San Francisco.[464] October 8: Three FBI informants reveal on PBS that they were paid to infiltrate anti-war groups and instigate them to commit violent acts which could be prosecuted. October 19–23: Rioting in Memphis leaves one dead. October 29: Guitar phenomenon Duane Allman of the Allman Brothers Band is killed in a motorcycle accident in Macon, GA at age 24. November 10: Berkeley, CA City Council votes to provide sanctuary to all military deserters. November: Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas, Hunter S. Thompson's drug-drenched indictment of 1960s counterculture, is published in Rolling Stone in 2 parts. December 10: John Sinclair Freedom Rally: John Lennon and other notables perform and speak at Crisler Arena in Ann Arbor to protest the treatment of Sinclair, who gave two pot joints to an undercover cop and was sentenced to 10 years in prison.[465] December 26–28: 15 Vietnam veterans occupy the Statue of Liberty to protest the war. December 28: Anti-war veterans attempt takeover of Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C. 80 are arrested. December: Feminism comes of age: Gloria Steinem's Ms. Magazine is first published as an insert in New York Magazine. The first standalone issue arrives the following month. Stephen Gaskin establishes "The Farm" hippie commune in Tennessee. Saul Alinsky's Rules for Radicals is published.[466] Abbie Hoffman's Steal This Book is published. The Anarchist Cookbook is published. Our Bodies, Ourselves is published.[467] 1972[edit] February 1: The Needle and the Damage Done: Neil Young releases a moving musical testimonial of friends lost to deadly narcotics during the era. Growth of heroin use flattens out in the 1970s, but is considered "hip" and explodes again within unindoctrinated generations in the 1990s and beyond.[468][469] March: The Nixon administration begins deportation proceedings against John Lennon, on the pretext of his 1968 marijuana charge in London.[470] March 22: The National Commission on Marihuana and Drug Abuse, appointed by President Nixon, finds "little danger" in cannabis, recommending abolition of all criminal penalties for possession. April 16: Facing heavy ground losses, US forces resume the bombing of Northern Vietnam. April 17–18: Students at University of Maryland protesting the bombing battle with police and National Guard are sent in. April 22: Large anti-war marches in New York, San Francisco, and Los Angeles. May 2: US FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover dies at 77 after nearly 50 years of virtually unchallenged control over the principal federal law enforcement agency.[471] May 19: Weather Underground bomb at the Pentagon causes damage but no injuries. May 21–22: 15,000 demonstrate in Washington against the war. June 4: Angela Davis is acquitted on all counts in her weapons trial. June 12: John Lennon's Plastic Ono Band releases the politically charged double album Some Time in New York City. June 17: The Watergate burglars are arrested in Washington, DC. July 28: Actress Jane Fonda visits North Vietnam. Fonda's return incites outrage when a photograph[472] of her seated on an enemy anti-aircraft gun is published, and she insists that POWs held captive have not been tortured or brainwashed by the communists. Fonda continues to apologize for her controversial visit to the present.[473][474] July: The first Rainbow Gathering of the Tribes is held over 4 days in Colorado, US. October 26: October Surprise?: US National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger tells a White House press conference that "we believe that peace is at hand."[475] November 2–8: About 500 protesters from the American Indian Movement take over the Bureau of Indian Affairs in Washington. November 7: Republican Richard Nixon is re-elected in a landslide over progressive democrat Senator George McGovern. November 16: Police kill 2 students during campus rioting at Southern University in Baton Rouge, Louisiana. November 21: A Federal Appeals Court overturns the conviction of the "Chicago 7" members. December 18–29: US Operation Linebacker II becomes most intensive bombing campaign of the war. The Joy of Sex: Unthinkable a decade earlier, the widely read sex manual for the liberated 1970s is published and openly displayed in mainstream bookstores. Michael X, a self-styled black revolutionary and civil rights activist in 1960s London, is convicted of murder. He was executed by hanging in Spain in 1975. 1973[edit] January 1: Bangladeshis burn down the US Information Service in Dacca in protest of the bombing of North Vietnam. January 2: Aerial bombing of North Vietnam resumes after a 36-hour New Year's truce. January 4: Forty neutral member nations of the UN formally protest the US bombing campaign. January 5: Canada's Parliament votes unanimously to condemn US bombing actions and calls for them to cease. January 10: Anti-war demonstrators attack US consulate in Lyons, France, and burn down the library of America House in Frankfurt, West Germany. January 15: Anti-war protesters occupy US consulate in Amsterdam. January 15: President Nixon suspends the bombing, citing progress in the Peace talks with Hanoi. West German Chancellor Willy Brandt warns Nixon that US relations with Western Europe are at risk.[476] January 22: Former US President Lyndon B. Johnson dies of cancer at his Texas ranch. January 22: The US Supreme Court rules on Roe v. Wade, effectively legalizing abortion.[477][478] January 28: US combat military involvement in Vietnam ends with a ceasefire, and commencement of withdrawal as called for under the Paris Peace Accords.[479] February 27 – May 8: Wounded Knee incident: Native American activists occupy the town of Wounded Knee, SD; 2 protesters and 1 US Marshal are killed during a lengthy standoff.[480] March: The first military draftees who are not subsequently called to service are selected, unceremoniously ending the Vietnam era of conscription in the US. March 8: Ron "Pigpen" McKernan, a founding member of the Grateful Dead, dies of a gastrointestinal hemorrhage at age 27 in Corte Madera, CA.[481] March 29: Last US combat troops leave Vietnam as US POWs have been released. May 17: The Senate Watergate Committee begins televised hearings on the ever-growing Watergate scandal implicating the President for gross abuses of power. July 1: The Drug Enforcement Administration supplants the BNDD.[482] July 28: Summer Jam at Watkins Glen, NY draws 600,000 to see the Grateful Dead, the Band, and the Allman Brothers - the largest such gathering in the US since Woodstock.[483] August 15: All US military involvement in Indochina conflict officially ends under the Case–Church Amendment. October 10: Vice President Spiro Agnew resigns. President Nixon names Congressman Gerald R. Ford of Michigan to replace Agnew on October 12.[484] October 23: Congress begins to consider articles of impeachment against Nixon. November 14: Greece: Students at Athens Polytechnic strike against the military junta. Tanks roll the 17th and at least 24 die.[485] November 17: At a session with 400 AP editors, President Nixon states, "People have got to know whether or not their President is a crook. Well, I'm not a crook. I've earned everything I've got."[486] 1974[edit] Saddled by a decade of drug-related legal problems, Timothy Leary reportedly becomes an informant for the FBI.[487] January 3: A Federal judge dismisses charges against 12 members of the Weathermen involved in the October 1969 "Days of Rage". This is a timeline of the African-American Civil Rights Movement of 1954-1968, a nonviolent freedom movement to gain legal equality and enforcement of constitutional rights for African Americans. The goals of the movement included securing equal protection of the laws, ending legally established racial discrimination, and gaining equal access to public facilities, education reform, fair housing, and the ability to vote. 1954 May 3 – In Hernandez v. Texas, the U.S. Supreme Court rules that Mexican Americans and all other racial groups in the United States are entitled to equal protection under the 14th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. May 17 – In Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kans. and in Bolling v. Sharpe, the U.S. Supreme Court rules against the "separate but equal" doctrine, overturning Plessy v. Ferguson and saying that segregation of public schools is unconstitutional. July 30 – At a special meeting in Jackson, Mississippi called by Governor Hugh White, T.R.M. Howard of the Regional Council of Negro Leadership, along with nearly one hundred other black leaders, publicly refuse to support a segregationist plan to maintain "separate but equal" in exchange for a crash program to increase spending on black schools. September 2 – In Montgomery, Alabama, 23 black children are prevented from attending all-white elementary schools, defying the recent U.S. Supreme Court ruling. September 7 – The District of Columbia ends segregated education; Baltimore, Maryland follows suit on September 8 September 15 – Protests by white parents in White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia force schools to postpone desegregation another year. September 16 – Mississippi abolishes all public schools with an amendment to its State Constitution; private segregation academies are founded for white students. September 30 – Integration of a high school in Milford, Delaware collapses when white students boycott classes. October 4 – Student demonstrations take place against integration of Washington, DC public schools. October 19 – Federal judge upholds an Oklahoma law requiring African-American candidates to be identified on voting ballots as "negro". October 30 – Desegregation of U.S. Armed Forces said to be complete. Frankie Muse Freeman is the lead attorney for the landmark NAACP case Davis et al. v. the St. Louis Housing Authority, which ended legal racial discrimination in the city's public housing. Constance Baker Motley was an attorney for NAACP: it was unusual to have two women attorneys leading such a high-profile case. 1955 January 15 – President Dwight D. Eisenhower signs Executive Order 10590, establishing the President's Committee on Government Policy to enforce a nondiscrimination policy in Federal employment. January 20 – Demonstrators from CORE and Morgan State University stage a successful sit-in to desegregate Read's Drug Store in Baltimore, Maryland April 5 – Mississippi passes a law penalizing white students by jail and fines who attend school with blacks . May 7 – NAACP and Regional Council of Negro Leadership activist Reverend George W. Lee is killed in Belzoni, Mississippi. May 31 – The U.S. Supreme Court rules in "Brown II" that desegregation must occur with "all deliberate speed". June 8 – University of Oklahoma decides to allow black students. June 23 – Virginia governor and Board of Education decide to continue segregated schools into 1956. June 29 – The NAACP wins a U.S. Supreme Court suit which orders the University of Alabama to admit Autherine Lucy. July 11 – Georgia Board of Education orders that any teacher supporting integration be fired. July 14 – A Federal Appeals Court overturns segregation on Columbia, SC buses. August 1 – Georgia Board of Education fires all black teachers who are members of the NAACP. August 13 – Regional Council of Negro Leadership registration activist Lamar Smith is murdered in Brookhaven, Mississippi. August 28 – Teenager Emmett Till is killed for whistling at a white woman in Money, Mississippi. November 7 – The Interstate Commerce Commission bans bus segregation in interstate travel in Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company. On the same day, the U.S. Supreme Court bans segregation on public parks and playgrounds. The governor of Georgia responds that his state would "get out of the park business" rather than allow playgrounds to be desegregated. December 1 – Rosa Parks refuses to give up her seat on a bus, starting the Montgomery Bus Boycott. This occurs nine months after 15-year-old high school student Claudette Colvin became the first to refuse to give up her seat. Colvin's was the legal case which eventually ended the practice in Montgomery. Roy Wilkins becomes the NAACP executive secretary. 1956 January 9 – Virginia voters and representatives decide to fund private schools with state money to maintain segregation. January 16 – FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover writes a rare open letter of complaint directed to civil rights leader Dr. T.R.M. Howard after Howard charged in a speech that the "FBI can pick up pieces of a fallen airplane on the slopes of a Colorado mountain and find the man who caused the crash, but they can't find a white man when he kills a Negro in the South." [1] January 24 – Governors of Georgia, Mississippi, South Carolina and Virginia agree to block integration of schools. February 1 – Virginia legislature passes a resolution that the U.S. Supreme Court integration decision was an "illegal encroachment". February 3 – Autherine Lucy is admitted to the University of Alabama. Whites riot for days, and she is suspended. Later, she is expelled for her part in filing legal action against the university. February 24 – The policy of Massive Resistance is declared by U.S. Senator Harry F. Byrd, Sr. from Virginia. February/March – The Southern Manifesto, opposing integration of schools, is drafted and signed by members of the Congressional delegations of Southern states, including 19 senators and 81 members of the House of Representatives, notably the entire delegations of the states of Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, South Carolina and Virginia. On March 12, it is released to the press. February 13 – Wilmington, Delaware school board decides to end segregation. February 22 – Ninety black leaders in Montgomery, Alabama are arrested for leading a bus boycott. February 29 – Mississippi legislature declares U.S. Supreme Court integration decision "invalid" in that state. March 1 – Alabama legislature votes to ask for federal funds to deport blacks to northern states. March 12 – U.S. Supreme Court orders the University of Florida to admit a black law school applicant "without delay". March 22 – King sentenced to fine or jail for instigating Montgomery bus boycott, suspended pending appeal. April 23 – U.S. Supreme Court strikes down segregation on buses nationwide. May 26 – Circuit Judge Walter B. Jones issues an injunction prohibiting the NAACP from operating in Alabama. May 28 – The Tallahassee, Florida bus boycott begins. June 5 – The Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights (ACMHR) is founded at a mass meeting in Birmingham, Alabama. September 2–11 – Teargas and National Guard used to quell segregationists rioting in Clinton, Tennessee; 12 black students enter high school under Guard protection. Smaller disturbances occur in Mansfield, Texas and Sturgis, Kentucky. September 10 – Two black students are prevented by a mob from entering a junior college in Texarkana, Texas. Schools in Louisville, Kentucky are successfully desegregated. September 12 – Four black children enter an elementary school in Clay, Kentucky under National Guard protection; white students boycott. The school board bars the four again on Sep. 17. October 15 – Integrated athletic or social events are banned in Louisiana. November 13 – In Browder v. Gayle, the U.S. Supreme Court strikes down Alabama laws requiring segregation of buses. This ruling, together with the ICC's 1955 ruling in Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach banning "Jim Crow laws" in bus travel among the states, is a landmark in outlawing "Jim Crow" in bus travel. December 20 – Federal marshals enforce the ruling to desegregate bus systems in Montgomery. December 24 – Blacks in Tallahassee, Florida begin defying segregation on city buses. December 25 – The parsonage in Birmingham, Alabama occupied by Fred Shuttlesworth, movement leader, is bombed. Shuttlesworth receives only minor injuries. December 26 – The ACMHR tests the Browder v. Gayle ruling by riding in the white sections of Birmingham city buses. 22 demonstrators are arrested. Mississippi State Sovereignty Commission formed. Director J. Edgar Hoover orders the FBI to begin the COINTELPRO program to investigate and disrupt "dissident" groups within the United States. 1957 February 8 – Georgia Senate votes to declare the 14th and 15th Amendments to the United States Constitution null and void in that state. February 14 – Southern Christian Leadership Conference is formed; Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. is named its chairman. April 18 – Florida Senate votes to consider U.S. Supreme Court's desegregation decisions "null and void". May 17 – The Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom in Washington, DC is at the time the largest nonviolent demonstration for civil rights. September 2 – Orval Faubus, governor of Arkansas, calls out the National Guard to block integration of Little Rock Central High School. September 6 – Federal judge orders Nashville public schools to integrate immediately. September 15 – New York Times reports that in three years since the decision, there has been minimal progress toward integration in four southern states, and no progress at all in seven. September 24 – President Dwight Eisenhower federalizes the National Guard and also orders US Army troops to ensure Little Rock Central High School in Arkansas is integrated. Federal and National Guard troops escort the Little Rock Nine. September 27 – Civil Rights Act of 1957 signed by President Eisenhower. October 7 – The finance minister of Ghana is refused service at a Dover, Delaware restaurant. President Eisenhower hosts him at the White House to apologize Oct. 10. October 9 – Florida legislature votes to close any school if federal troops are sent to enforce integration. October 31 – Officers of NAACP arrested in Little Rock for failing to comply with a 6.2.4 Chess 6.2.5 Olympics Athletes[edit] Baseball[edit] Ryan Braun, outfielder (Milwaukee Brewers) Ike Davis, first baseman (Oakland Athletics) Ian Kinsler, second baseman (Detroit Tigers) Ryan Lavarnway, catcher (Atlanta Braves) Jason Marquis, pitcher (Cincinnati Reds) Joc Pederson, outfielder (Los Angeles Dodgers) Kevin Youkilis, first and third baseman Cal Abrams, US, outfielder[2] Rubén Amaro, Jr., US, outfielder, general manager (Philadelphia Phillies)[2] Morrie Arnovich, US, outfielder, All-Star[2] Brad Ausmus, US, catcher, All-Star, 3x Gold Glove, manager of the Detroit Tigers[2] José Bautista, Dominican-born, pitcher[2] Robert "Bo" Belinsky, U.S., pitcher. Pitched no-hit game as rookie with Los Angeles Angels in 1962.[3] Moe Berg, US, catcher & shortstop, and spy for US in World War II[2] Ron Blomberg, US, DH/first baseman/outfielder, Major League Baseball's first designated hitter[4] Lou Boudreau, US, shortstop, 8x All-Star, batting title, MVP, Baseball Hall of Fame, manager[2] Ralph Branca, US, pitcher, 3x All-Star[5] Ryan Braun, US, outfielder, 2007 Rookie of the Year, home run champion, 5x All-Star, 5x Silver Slugger, 2011 National League MVP (Milwaukee Brewers)[6] Craig Breslow, US, relief pitcher (Boston Red Sox)[2] Mark Clear, US, relief pitcher, 2x All-Star[7] Andy Cohen, US, second baseman, coach Harry Danning, US, catcher, 4x All-Star[2][8] Ike Davis, US, first baseman (Oakland Athletics)[9] Moe Drabowsky, US, pitcher[10] Harry Eisenstat, US, pitcher[11] Mike Epstein, US, first baseman[2] Harry Feldman, US, pitcher[2] Scott Feldman, US, pitcher (Houston Astros)[2] Gavin Fingleson, South African-born Australian, Olympic silver medalist[12] Nate Freiman, US, first baseman (Oakland Athletics)[13][14] Sam Fuld, US, outfielder (Oakland Athletics)[15] Sid Gordon, US, outfielder & third baseman, 2x All-Star[2] John Grabow, US, relief pitcher[2] Shawn Green, US, right fielder, 2x All-Star, Gold Glove, Silver Slugger[2] Hank Greenberg, US, first baseman & outfielder, 5x All-Star, 4x home run champion, 4x RBI leader, 2x MVP, Baseball Hall of Fame[2] Ken Holtzman, US, starting pitcher, 2x All-Star[2] Joe Horlen, US, pitcher, All-Star, ERA leader[2] Gabe Kapler, US, outfielder[2] Ian Kinsler, US, second baseman, 3x All-Star (Detroit Tigers)[16] Sandy Koufax, US, starting pitcher, 6x All-Star, 5x ERA leader, 4x strikeouts leader, 3x Wins leader, 2x W-L% leader, 1 perfect game, MVP, 3x Cy Young Award, Baseball Hall of Fame[2] Barry Latman, US, pitcher[11] Ryan Lavarnway, US, catcher (Atlanta Braves)[17] Al Levine, US, relief pitcher[2] Mike Lieberthal, US, catcher, 2x All-Star, Gold Glove[2] Elliott Maddox, US, outfielder & third baseman[2] Jason Marquis, US, starting pitcher, Silver Slugger, All Star (Cincinnati Reds)[2] Erskine Mayer, US, pitcher[2] Bob Melvin, US, catcher & manager of the Oakland Athletics[18] Jon Moscot, US, pitcher (Cincinnati Reds)[19] Jeff Newman, US, catcher & first baseman, All-Star, manager[2] Joc Pederson, US, outfielder (Los Angeles Dodgers)[20] Barney Pelty, US, pitcher[2] Lipman Pike, US, outfielder, second baseman, & manager, 4x home run champion, RBI leader[2] Kevin Pillar, US, outfielder (Toronto Blue Jays) Aaron Poreda, US, pitcher (Yomiuri Giants)[2] Scott Radinsky, US, relief pitcher[2] Dave Roberts, US, pitcher[2] Saul Rogovin, US, pitcher[2] Al "Flip" Rosen, US, third baseman & first baseman, 4x All-Star, 2x home run champion, 2x RBI leader, MVP[2] Goody Rosen, Canada, outfielder, All-Star[2] Josh Satin, US, second baseman (Cincinnati Reds)[21] Richie Scheinblum, US, outfielder, All-Star[2] Scott Schoeneweis, US, pitcher[2] Michael Schwimer, US, relief pitcher (Toronto Blue Jays)[22] Art Shamsky, US, outfielder & first baseman[2] Larry Sherry, US, relief pitcher[2] Norm Sherry, US, catcher & manager[2] Moe "the Rabbi of Swat" Solomon, US, outfielder[2] George Stone, US, outfielder, 1x batting title[23] Steve Stone, US, starting pitcher, All-Star, Cy Young Award[2] Danny Valencia, US, third baseman (Oakland Athletics)[24] Phil "Mickey" Weintraub, US, first baseman & outfielder Josh Whitesell, US, first baseman (Saraperos de Saltillo)[25] Steve Yeager, US, catcher[2] Kevin Youkilis, US, first baseman, third baseman, & left fielder, 3x All-Star, Gold Glove, Hank Aaron Award[2] Josh Zeid, US, pitcher for the Detroit Tigers Basketball[edit] Omri Casspi Jordan Farmar Gal Mekel Jon Scheyer Sam Balter, US, 5' 10" guard, Olympic champion[8][26] Sue Bird, US & Israel, WNBA 5' 9" point guard, 2x Olympic champion, 4x All-Star (Seattle Storm)[27] David Blatt, US & Israel, Israeli Premier League 6' 3.5" point guard, coached Russia National Basketball Team, Israel's Maccabi Tel Aviv to Euroleague Championship, Euroleague Coach of the Year, 4x Israeli Coach of the Year, Head Coach of Cleveland Cavaliers[28][29] David Blu (formerly "Bluthenthal"), US & Israel, Euroleague 6' 7" forward (Maccabi Tel Aviv)[30] Harry Boykoff, US, NBA 6' 10" center[31] Tal Brody, US & Israel, Euroleague 6' 2" shooting guard[8] Larry Brown, US, ABA 5' 9" point guard, 3x All-Star, 3x assists leader, NCAA National Championship coach (1988), NBA coach, Olympic champion, Hall of Fame[8][26] Omri Casspi, Israel, 6' 9" small forward, drafted in 1st round of 2009 NBA Draft (Sacramento Kings)[32] Shay Doron, Israel & US, WNBA 5' 9" guard (New York Liberty)[33] Lior Eliyahu, Israel, 6' 9" power forward, NBA draft 2006 (Orlando Magic; traded to Houston Rockets), playing in the Euroleague (Hapoel Jerusalem)[34] Jordan Farmar, US, NBA 6' 2" point guard (Los Angeles Clippers)[35] Marty Friedman, US, 5' 7" guard & coach, Hall of Fame[8] Ernie Grunfeld, Romania-born US, NBA 6' 6" guard/forward & GM, Olympic champion[36] Yotam Halperin, Israel, 6' 5" guard, drafted in 2006 NBA draft by Seattle SuperSonics (Hapoel Jerusalem)[34] Sonny Hertzberg, US, NBA 5' 9" point guard, original NY Knickerbocker[37] Art Heyman, US, NBA 6' 5" forward/guard[37] Nat Holman, US, ABL 5' 11" guard & coach, Hall of Fame[8] Red Holzman, US, BAA & NBA 5' 10" guard, 2x All-Star, & NBA coach, NBA Coach of the Year, Hall of Fame[8] Eban Hyams, India-Israel-Australia, 6' 5" guard formerly of the Australian National Basketball League, Israeli Super League, first ever Indian national to play in ULEB competitions[38] Barry Kramer, first team All-American at NYU in 1963 Joel Kramer, US Phoenix Suns 6'7" forward Sylven Landesberg, US, 6' 6" former UVA shooting guard (Maccabi Tel Aviv)[39] Rudy LaRusso, US, NBA 6' 7" forward/center, 5x All-Star[40] Nancy Lieberman, US, WNBA player, general manager, & coach, Olympic silver, Hall of Fame[26][41] Gal Mekel, Israel, NBA 6' 3" point guard (Dallas Mavericks)[42] Bernard Opper, US, NBL and ABL 5' 10" guard, All-American at University of Kentucky Donna Orender (née Geils), US, Women's Pro Basketball League 5' 7" point guard, All-Star, current WNBA president[37] Lennie Rosenbluth, US, NBA 6' 4" forward[36] Danny Schayes, US, NBA 6' 11" center/forward (son of Dolph Schayes)[37] Dolph Schayes, US, NBA 6' 7" forward/center, 3x FT% leader, 1x rebound leader, 12x All-Star, Hall of Fame, & coach (father of Danny Schayes)[8] Ossie Schectman, US, NBA 6' 0" guard, scorer of first NBA basket[36] Doron Sheffer, US (college), Maccabi Tel Aviv,Hapoel Jerusalem Jon Scheyer, US, All-American Duke University 6' 5" shooting guard & point guard (Maccabi Tel Aviv)[43] Barney Sedran, US, Hudson River League & New York State League 5' 4" guard, Hall of Fame[8] Sidney Tannenbaum, US, BAA 6' 0" guard, 2x All-American, left as NYU all-time scorer[8] Alex Tyus, US & Israel, 6' 8" power forward/center (Maccabi Tel Aviv) Neal Walk, US, NBA 6' 10" center[37] Max Zaslofsky, US, NBA 6' 2" guard/forward, 1x FT% leader, 1x points leader, All-Star, ABA coach[8] Bowling[edit] Barry Asher, 10 PBA titles, PBA Hall of Fame[7] Marshall Holman, 22 PBA titles (11th all-time); PBA Hall of Fame[44] Mark Roth, 34 PBA titles (5th all-time); PBA Hall of Fame[45] Boxing[edit] Yuri Foreman Zab Judah Dmitry Salita Barney Aaron (Young), English-born US lightweight, Hall of Fame[46] Abe Attell ("The Little Hebrew"), US, world champion featherweight, Hall of Fame[8] Monte Attell ("The Knob Hill Terror"), US, bantamweight[47] Max Baer ("Madcap Maxie"), US, world champion heavyweight. Wore a Star of David on his trunks; inducted into the International Jewish Sports Hall of Fame. Hall of Fame/[48] Benny Bass ("Little Fish"), US, world champion featherweight & world champion junior lightweight, Hall of Fame[8] Fabrice Benichou, France, world champion super bantamweight[34] Jack Kid Berg (Judah Bergman), England, world champion junior welterweight, wore a Star of David on his trunks, Hall of Fame[8] Maxie Berger, Canada, wore a Star of David on his trunks[49] Samuel Berger, US, Olympic champion heavyweight[8] Jack Bernstein (also "John Dodick", "Kid Murphy", and "Young Murphy"), US, world champion junior lightweight[8] Nathan "Nat" Bor, US, Olympic bronze lightweight[26] Mushy Callahan (Vincente Sheer), US, world champion light welterweight[47] Joe Choynski ("Chrysanthemum Joe"), US, heavyweight, Hall of Fame[8][50] Robert Cohen, French & Algerian, world champion bantamweight[8] Al "Bummy" Davis (Abraham Davidoff), US, welterweight & lightweight, wore a Star of David on his trunks[47] Louis "Red" Deutsch, US, heavyweight, later famous as the proprietor of the Tube Bar in Jersey City, NJ and inspiration for Moe Szyslak on "The Simpsons" Carolina Duer ("The Turk"), Argentine, WBO world champion super flyweight and bantamweight[51] John "Jackie" Fields (Jacob Finkelstein), US, world champion welterweight & Olympic champion featherweight, Hall of Fame[8] Hagar Finer, Israel, WIBF champion bantamweight[52] Yuri Foreman, Belarusian-born Israeli US middleweight and World Boxing Association champion super welterweight[53] György Gedó, Hungary, Olympic champion light flyweight[41] Abe Goldstein, US, world champion bantamweight[54] Ruby Goldstein ("Ruby the Jewel of the Ghetto"), US, welterweight, wore a Star of David on his trunks[8] Roman Greenberg ("The Lion from Zion"), Israel, International Boxing Organization's Intercontinental champion heavyweight[53] Stéphane Haccoun, France, featherweight, super featherweight, and junior lightweight[55][56] Alphonse Halimi ("La Petite Terreur"), France, world champion bantamweight[8] Harry Harris ("The Human Hairpin"), US, world champion bantamweight[8] Gary Jacobs, Scottish, British, Commonwealth, and European (EBU) champion welterweight[57] Ben Jeby (Morris Jebaltowsky), US, world champion middleweight[47] Yoel Judah, US, 3x world champion kickboxer and boxer & trainer[58] Zab Judah ("Super"), US, world champion junior welterweight & world champion welterweight (Converted to Christianity)[58][59][60][61] Louis Kaplan ("Kid Kaplan"), Russian-born US, world champion featherweight, Hall of Fame[8][50] Solly Krieger ("Danny Auerbach"), US, world champion middleweight[8] Julie Kogon US, 1947 New England Lightweight Champion. Inducted into the Connecticut Boxing Hall of Fame. Benny Leonard (Benjamin Leiner; "The Ghetto Wizard"), US, world champion lightweight, Hall of Fame[8] Battling Levinsky (Barney Lebrowitz), US, world champion light heavyweight, Hall of Fame[8] King Levinsky (Harry Kraków), US, heavweight, also known as Kingfish Levinsky[8] Harry Lewis (Harry Besterman), US, world champion welterweight[47] Ted "Kid" Lewis (Gershon Mendeloff), England, world champion welterweight, Hall of Fame[8] Sammy Luftspring, Canada, Canadian champion welterweight, Canada's Sports Hall of Fame[47] Saoul Mamby, US, world champion junior welterweight[47] Al McCoy (Alexander Rudolph), US, world champion middleweight[8] Daniel Mendoza, England, world champion heavyweight, Hall of Fame[8] Jacob Michaelsen, Denmark, Olympic bronze heavyweight[26] Samuel Mosberg, US, Olympic champion lightweight[8] Bob Olin, US, world champion light heavyweight[62] Victor Perez ("Young"), Tunisian, world champion flyweight[8] Harold Reitman ("The Boxing Doctor"), professional heavyweight that fought while working as surgeon, Golden Gloves champion.[63] Charlie Phil Rosenberg ("Charles Green"), US, world champion bantamweight[8] Dana Rosenblatt ("Dangerous"), US, world champion middleweight[64] Maxie Rosenbloom ("Slapsie"), US, world champion light heavyweight, wore a Star of David on his trunks, Hall of Fame[8] Barney Ross (Dov-Ber Rasofsky), US, world champion lightweight & junior welterweight, Hall of Fame[8] Mike Rossman (Michael Albert DiPiano; "The Jewish Bomber"), US, world champion light heavyweight, wore Star of David on trunks[64] Shamil Sabirov, Russia, Olympic champion light flyweight[26] Dmitry Salita ("Star of David"), US, North American Boxing Association champion light welterweight[65] Isadore "Corporal Izzy" Schwartz ("The Ghetto Midget"), US, world champion flyweight[8] Al Singer ("The Bronx Beauty"), US, world champion lightweight[47] "Lefty" Lew Tendler, US, bantamweight, lightweight, and welterweight, wore a Star of David on his trunks, Hall of Fame[8] Sid Terris ("Ghost of the Ghetto"), US, lightweight, wore a Star of David on his trunks[54] Matt Wels, England, champion of Great Britain lightweight and world champion welterweight Canoeing[edit] Jessica Fox Shaun Rubenstein László Fábián, Hungary, sprint canoer, Olympic champion (K-2 10,000 meter), 4x world champion (3x K-2 10,000 meter and 1x K-4 10,000 meter) and one silver (K-4 10,000 meter)[26] Imre Farkas, Hungary, sprint canoer, 2x Olympic bronze (C-2 1,000 and 10,000 meter)[66] Jessica Fox, French-born Australian, slalom canoer, Olympic silver (K-1 slalom), world championships bronze (C-1)[67] Myriam Fox-Jerusalmi, France, slalom canoer, Olympic bronze (K-1 slalom), 5 golds at ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships (2x K-1, 3x K-1 team)[41] Klára Fried-Bánfalvi, Hungary, sprint canoer, Olympic bronze (K-2 500 m), world champion (K-2 500 m)[26] Leonid Geishtor, USSR (Belarus), sprint canoer, Olympic champion (Canadian pairs 1,000-meter)[41] Joe Jacobi, US, slalom canoer, Olympic champion (Canadian slalom pairs)[41] Michael Kolganov, Soviet (Uzbek)-born Israeli, sprint canoer, world champion, Olympic bronze (K-1 500-meter)[41] Anna Pfeffer, Hungary, sprint canoer, Olympic 2x silver (K-2 500 m), bronze (K-1 500 m); world champion (K-2 500 m), silver (K-4 500 m), 2x bronze (K-2 500)[26] Naum Prokupets, Moldovan-born Soviet, sprint canoer, Olympic bronze (C-2 1,000-meter), gold (C-2 10,000-meter) at ICF Canoe Sprint World Championships[41] Leon Rotman, Romanian, sprint canoer, 2x Olympic champion (C-1 10,000 meter, C-1 1,000-meter) and bronze (C-1 1,000-meter), 14 national titles[41] Shaun Rubenstein, South Africa, canoer, World Marathon champion 2006[68] Cricket[edit] Michael Klinger Ben Ashkenazi, Australia (Victorian Bushrangers) Ali Bacher, South Africa, batsman and administrator (relative of Adam Bacher)[69] Mike Barnard, England, cricketer[69] Mark Bott, England, cricketer[70] Stevie Eskinazi, South African born, Australian raised, English wicketkeeper Mark Fuzes. Australian all rounder played for Hong Kong. Father Peter Fuzes kept goal for Australian Soccer team (see)[71] Dennis Gamsy, South Africa, Test wicket-keeper[72] Darren Gerard, England, cricketer[73] Norman Gordon, South Africa, fast bowler[69] Steven Herzberg, English-born Australian, cricketer[74] Sid Kiel, South Africa, opening batsman (Western Province)[75] Michael Klinger, Australia, batsman (Western Warriors)[69] Leonard "Jock" Livingston, Australia, cricketer[69] Bev Lyon, England, cricketer[69] Dar Lyon, England, cricketer (brother of Bev)[69] Greg, Jason, and Lara Molins, two brothers and a cousin from the same Irish family[74] Jon Moss, Australia, allrounder (Victorian Bushrangers)[69] John Raphael, England, batsman[69] Marshall Rosen, NSW Australia, cricketer and selector[76] Lawrence Seeff, South Africa, batsmen[77] Maurice Sievers, Australia, lower order batsman and fast-medium bowler[69] Bensiyon Songavkar, India, cricketer, MVP of 2009 Maccabiah Games cricket tournament[78] Fred Susskind, South Africa, Test batsman[69] Fred Trueman, England, English test fast bowler (a lifelong Christian)[69] Julien Wiener, Australia, Test cricketer[69] Mandy Yachad, South Africa, Test cricketer[69] Equestrian[edit] Margie Goldstein-Engle Robert Dover, US, 4x Olympic bronze, 1x world championship bronze (dressage)[79] Margie Goldstein-Engle, US, world championship silver, Pan American Games gold, silver, and bronze (jumping)[80] Edith Master, US, Olympic bronze (dressage)[26] Fencing[edit] Helene Mayer Soren Thompson Henri Anspach, Belgium (épée & foil), Olympic champion[26] Paul Anspach, Belgium (épée & foil), 2x Olympic champion[26] Norman Armitage (Norman Cohn), US (sabre), 17x US champion, Olympic bronze[26] Albert "Albie" Axelrod, US (foil); Olympic bronze, 4x US champion[8] Péter Bakonyi, Hungary (saber), Olympic 3x bronze[41] Cliff Bayer, US (foil); youngest US champion[37] Albert Bogen (Albert Bógathy), Austria (saber), Olympic silver[41] Tamir Bloom, US (épée); 2x US champion[37] Daniel Bukantz, US (foil); 4x US champion[37] Sergey Sharikov, Russia (saber), 2x Olympic champion, silver, bronze[26] Yves Dreyfus, France (épée), Olympic bronze, French champion[26] Ilona Elek, Hungary (saber), 2x Olympic champion[26] Boaz Ellis, Israel (foil), 5x Israeli champion[34] Siegfried "Fritz" Flesch, Austria (sabre), Olympic bronze[26] Dr. Dezsö Földes, Hungary (saber), 2x Olympic champion[26] Dr. Jenö Fuchs, Hungary (saber), 4x Olympic champion[81] Támas Gábor, Hungary (épée), Olympic champion[8] János Garay, Hungary (saber), Olympic champion, silver, bronze, killed by the Nazis[8] Dr. Oskar Gerde, Hungary (saber), 2x Olympic champion, killed by the Nazis[26] Dr. Sándor Gombos, Hungary (saber), Olympic champion[62] Vadim Gutzeit, Ukraine (saber), Olympic champion[82] Johan Harmenberg, Sweden (épée), Olympic champion[26] Delila Hatuel, Israel (foil), Olympian, ranked # 9 in world[83] Lydia Hatuel-Zuckerman, Israel (foil), 6x Israeli champion[84][85] Dr. Otto Herschmann, Austria (saber), Olympic silver[26] Emily Jacobson, US (saber), NCAA champion[86] Sada Jacobson, US (saber), ranked # 1 in the world, Olympic silver, 2x bronze[86] Allan Jay, British (épée & foil), Olympic 2x silver, world champion[26] Endre Kabos, Hungary (saber), 3x Olympic champion, bronze[26] Roman Kantor, Poland (épée), Nordic champion & Soviet champion, killed by the Nazis[26] Dan Kellner, US (foil), US champion[86] Byron Krieger, US[87] Grigory Kriss, Soviet (épée), Olympic champion, 2x silver[26] Allan Kwartler, US (saber), 3x Pan American Games champion[10] Alexandre Lippmann, France (épée), 2x Olympic champion, 2x silver, bronze[8] Helene Mayer, Germany & US (foil), Olympic champion[26] Ljubco Georgievski ????? ??????????? Kiro Gligorov ???? ???????? Nikola Gruevski ?????? ???????? Gjorge Ivanov ????? ?????? Gordana Jankuloska ??????? ?????????? Zoran Jolevski ????? ???????? Srgjan Kerim ????? ????? Lazar Koliševski ????? ?????????? Hari Kostov ???? ?????? Trifun Kostovski ?????? ????????? Ilinka Mitreva ?????? ??????? Lazar Mojsov ????? ?????? Tito Petkovski ???? ????????? Lui Temelkovski ??? ??????????? Boris Trajkovski ????? ?????????? Vasil Tupurkovski ????? ??????????? Zoran Zaev ????? ???? Partisans World War II freedom fighters edit Mirce Acev ????? ???? Mihajlo Apostolski ????j?? ?????????? Cede Filipovski Dame ???? ?????????? ???? Blagoj Jankov Muceto ?????? ?????? ?????? Orce Nikolov ???? ??????? Strašo Pindžur ?????? ?????? Hristijan Todorovski Karpoš ????????? ?????????? ?????? Revolutionaries edit Yordan Piperkata ?????? ???????? ????????? Goce Delcev ???? ????? Petar Pop Arsov ????? ??? ????? Dame Gruev ???? ????? Jane Sandanski ???? ????????? Dimitar Pop Georgiev Berovski ??????? ??? ???????? ???????? Ilyo Voyvoda ???? ??? ?????????? Pere Tošev ???? ????? Pitu Guli ???? ???? Dimo Hadži Dimov ???? ???? ????? Hristo Uzunov ?????? ?????? Literature edit Gjorgji Abadžiev ????? ??????? Petre M Andreevski ????? ? ?????????? Maja Apostoloska ???? ??????????? Dimitrija Cupovski ????????? ???????? Jordan Hadži Konstantinov Džinot ?????? ???? ???????????? ????? Vasil Iljoski ????? ?????? Slavko Janevski ?????? ???????? Blaže Koneski ????? ??????? Risto Krle ????? ???? Vlado Maleski ????? ??????? Mateja Matevski ?????? ???????? Krste Misirkov ????? ????????? Kole Nedelkovski ???? ??????????? Olivera Nikolova Anton Panov ????? ????? Gjorche Petrov ????? ?????? Vidoe Podgorec ????? ???????? Aleksandar Prokopiev ?????????? ????????? Koco Racin ???? ????? Jovica Tasevski Eternijan ?????? ???????? ????????? Gane Todorovski ???? ?????????? Stevan Ognenovski ?????? ?????????? Music edit Classical music edit Composers edit Atanas Badev ?????? ????? Dimitrije Bužarovski ????????? ?????????? Kiril Makedonski ????? ?????????? Toma Prošev ???? ?????? Todor Skalovski ????? ????????? Stojan Stojkov ?????? ??????? Aleksandar Džambazov ?????????? ???????? Conductors edit Borjan Canev ?????? ????? Instrumentalists edit Pianists Simon Trpceski ????? ???????? Opera singers edit Blagoj Nacoski ?????? ??????? Boris Trajanov ????? ???????? Popular and folk music edit Composers edit Darko Dimitrov ????? ???????? Slave Dimitrov ????? ???????? Jovan Jovanov ????? ??????? Ilija Pejovski ????? ???????? Musicians edit Bodan Arsovski ????? ???????? Goran Trajkoski ????? ????????? Ratko Dautovski ????? ????????? Kiril Džajkovski ????? ????????? Tale Ognenovski ???? ?????????? Vlatko Stefanovski ?????? ??????????? Stevo Teodosievski ????? ???????????? Aleksandra Popovska ?????????? ???????? Singers and Bands edit Lambe Alabakoski ????? ?????????? Anastasia ????????? Arhangel ???????? Kristina Arnaudova ???????? ????????? Kaliopi Bukle ??????? Dani Dimitrovska ???? ??????????? Riste Tevdoski ????? ???????? Karolina Goceva ???????? ?????? Vaska Ilieva ????? ?????? Andrijana Janevska ????????? ???????? Vlado Janevski ????? ???????? Jovan Jovanov ????? ??????? Leb i sol ??? ? ??? Aleksandar Makedonski ?????????? ?????????? Elvir Mekic ????? ????? Mizar ????? Jasmina Mukaetova ??????? ????e???? The Malagasy French Malgache are the ethnic group that forms nearly the entire population of Madagascar They are divided into two subgroups the "Highlander" Merina Sihanaka and Betsileo of the central plateau around Antananarivo Alaotra Ambatondrazaka and Fianarantsoa and the "coastal dwellers" elsewhere in the country This division has its roots in historical patterns of settlement The original Austronesian settlers from Borneo arrived between the third and tenth centuries and established a network of principalities in the Central Highlands region conducive to growing the rice they had carried with them on their outrigger canoes Sometime later a large number of settlers arrived from East Africa and established kingdoms along the relatively unpopulated coastlines The difference in ethnic origins remains somewhat evident between the highland and coastal regions In addition to the ethnic distinction between highland and coastal Malagasy one may speak of a political distinction as well Merina monarchs in the late th and early th century united the Merina principalities and brought the neighboring Betsileo people under their administration first They later extended Merina control over the majority of the coastal areas as well The military resistance and eventual defeat of most of the coastal communities assured their subordinate position vis à vis the Merina Betsileo alliance During the th and th centuries the French colonial administration capitalized on and further exacerbated these political inequities by appropriating existing Merina governmental infrastructure to run their colony This legacy of political inequity dogged the people of Madagascar after gaining independence in candidates ethnic and regional identities have often served to help or hinder their success in democratic elections Within these two broad ethnic and political groupings the Malagasy were historically subdivided into specifically named ethnic groups who were primarily distinguished from one another on the basis of cultural practices These were namely agricultural hunting or fishing practices construction style of dwellings music hair and clothing styles and local customs or taboos the latter known in the Malagasy language as fady citation needed The number of such ethnic groups in Madagascar has been debated The practices that distinguished many of these groups are less prevalent in the st century than they were in the past But many Malagasy are proud to proclaim their association with one or several of these groups as part of their own cultural identity "Highlander" ethnic groups Merina Sihanaka Betsileo Zafimaniry Coastal ethnic groups Antaifasy or Antefasy Antaimoro or Temoro or Antemoro Antaisaka or Antesaka Antambahoaka Antandroy or Tandroy Antankarana Antanosy or Tanosy Academia edit Afifi al Akiti Khasnor Johan historian Khoo Kay Kim Jomo Kwame Sundaram Danny Quah Harith Ahmad Architects edit Main article List of Malaysian architects Artists edit Main article List of Malaysian artists Business edit Tan Sri Syed Mokhtar Al Bukhary born Tan Sri Dato Loh Boon Siew – Tan Sri Jeffrey Cheah Tan Sri William Cheng Dato Choong Chin Liang born Tan Sri Dato Tony Fernandes born Lim Goh Tong – Tan Sri Tiong Hiew King Tan Sri Teh Hong Piow born Chung Keng Quee – Tan Sri Ananda Krishnan born Robert Kuok born Tan Sri Quek Leng Chan born Shoba Purushothaman Shah Hakim Zain Halim Saad Tan Sri Mohd Saleh Sulong Tan Sri Vincent Tan born Lillian Too born Tan Sri Dr Francis Yeoh Tun Daim Zainuddin born Tan Sri Kong Hon Kong Designers edit Bernard Chandran fashion designer Jimmy Choo born shoe designer Poesy Liang born artist writer philanthropist jewellery designer industrial designer interior architect music composer Inventors edit Yi Ren Ng inventor of the Lytro Entertainers edit Yasmin Ahmad – film director Stacy Angie Francissca Peter born Jamal Abdillah born Sudirman Arshad – Loganathan Arumugam died Datuk David Arumugam Alleycats Awal Ashaari Alvin Anthons born Asmawi bin Ani born Ahmad Azhar born Ning Baizura born Kasma Booty died Marion Caunter host of One In A Million and the TV Quickie Ella born Erra Fazira born Sean Ghazi born Fauziah Latiff born Angelica Lee born Daniel Lee Chee Hun born Fish Leong born Sheila Majid born Amy Mastura born Mohamad Nasir Mohamad born Shathiyah Kristian born Meor Aziddin Yusof born Ah Niu born Dayang Nurfaizah born Shanon Shah born Siti Nurhaliza born Misha Omar born Hani Mohsin – Aziz M Osman born Azmyl Yunor born P Ramlee born Aziz Sattar born Fasha Sandha born Ku Nazhatul Shima Ku Kamarazzaman born Nicholas Teo born Pete Teo Penny Tai born Hannah Tan born Jaclyn Victor born Chef Wan Adira Suhaimi Michael Wong born Victor Wong born Dato Michelle Yeoh Hollywood actress born James Wan director of Hollywood films like several Saw films Insidious The Conjuring Fast and Furious born Ziana Zain born Zee Avi Shila Amzah Yunalis Zarai Zamil Idris born Military edit Leftenan Adnan – Warrior from mainland Malaya Antanum Warrior from Sabah Borneo Rentap Warrior from Sarawak Syarif Masahor Warrior from Sarawak Monsopiad Warrior from Sabah Borneo Haji Abdul Rahman Limbong Warrior from Telemong Terengganu Mat Salleh Warrior from Sabah Borneo Rosli Dhobi Warrior from Sarawak Politicians edit Parameswara founder of Sultanate of Malacca Tunku Abdul Rahman Putra Al Haj st Prime Minister of independent Malaya Tun Abdul Razak nd Prime Minister V T Sambanthan Founding Fathers of Malaysia along with Tunku Abdul Rahman and Tan Cheng Lock Tun Dato Sir Tan Cheng Lock Founder of MCA Tun Hussein Onn rd Prime Minister Mahathir Mohammad th Prime Minister Father of Modernisation Abdullah Ahmad Badawi th Prime Minister since Najib Tun Razak Current Prime Minister since Dato Seri Ong Ka Ting Dato Seri Anwar Ibrahim Dato Wan Hisham Wan Salleh Nik Aziz Nik Mat Raja Nong Chik Zainal Abidin Federal Territory and Urban Wellbeing Minister Wan Azizah Wan Ismail Karpal Singh Lim Kit Siang Lim Guan Eng Tengku Razaleigh Hamzah Religious edit Antony Selvanayagam Roman Catholic Bishop of the Diocese of Penang Anthony Soter Fernandez Archbishop Emeritus of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Kuala Lumpur and Bishop Emeritus of the Diocese of Penang Gregory Yong – Second Roman Catholic Archbishop of Singapore Tan Sri Datuk Murphy Nicholas Xavier Pakiam Metropolitan archbishop of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Kuala Lumpur president of the Catholic Bishops Conference of Malaysia Singapore and Brunei and publisher of the Catholic weekly newspaper The Herald Datuk Ng Moon Hing the fourth and current Anglican Bishop of West Malaysia Sportspeople edit Squash edit Datuk Nicol Ann David Ong Beng Hee Azlan Iskandar Low Wee Wern Badminton edit Chan Chong Ming men s doubles Dato Lee Chong Wei Chew Choon Eng men s doubles Wong Choong Hann Chin Eei Hui women s doubles Hafiz Hashim Roslin Hashim Wong Pei Tty women s doubles Choong Tan Fook men s doubles Lee Wan Wah men s doubles Koo Kien Keat men s doubles Tan Boon Heong men s doubles Retired edit Tan Aik Huang Eddy Choong Punch Gunalan Yap Kim Hock Foo Kok Keong Jalani Sidek Misbun Sidek Rashid Sidek Razif Sidek Cheah Soon Kit Lee Wan Wah Football soccer edit Brendan Gan Sydney FC Shaun Maloney Wigan Athletic Akmal Rizal Perak FA Kedah FA RC Strasbourg FCSR Haguenau Norshahrul Idlan Talaha Kelantan FA Khairul Fahmi Che Mat Kelantan FA Mohd Safiq Rahim Selangor FA Mohd Fadzli Saari Selangor FA PBDKT T Team FC SV Wehen Rudie Ramli Selangor FA PKNS F C SV Wehen Mohd Safee Mohd Sali Selangor FA Pelita Jaya Baddrol Bakhtiar Kedah FA Mohd Khyril Muhymeen Zambri Kedah FA Mohd Azmi Muslim Kedah FA Mohd Fadhli Mohd Shas Harimau Muda A FC ViOn Zlaté Moravce Mohd Irfan Fazail Harimau Muda A FC ViOn Zlaté Moravce Wan Zack Haikal Wan Noor Harimau Muda A FC ViOn Zlaté Moravce F C Ryukyu Nazirul Naim Che Hashim Harimau Muda A F C Ryukyu Khairul Izuan Abdullah Sarawak FA Persibo Bojonegoro PDRM FA Stanley Bernard Stephen Samuel Sabah FA Sporting Clube de Goa Nazmi Faiz Harimau Muda A SC Beira Mar Ahmad Fakri Saarani Perlis FA Atlético S C Chun Keng Hong Penang FA Chanthaburi F C Retired edit Serbegeth Singh owner founder of MyTeam Blackburn Rovers F C Global dvisor Mokhtar Dahari former Selangor FA and Malaysian player Lim Teong Kim former Hertha BSC player