dynasty reportedly had approximately million citizens the census which followed the invasion reported roughly million people The Black Death one of the most devastating pandemics in human history is thought to have originated in the arid plains of central Asia where it then travelled along the Silk Road The Russian Empire began to expand into Asia from the th century and would eventually take control of all of Siberia and most of Central Asia by the end of the th century The Ottoman Empire controlled Anatolia the Middle East North Africa and the Balkans from the th century onwards In the th century the Manchu conquered China and established the Qing Dynasty In the th century the Islamic Mughal Empire controlled much of India Geography and climate Main articles Geography of Asia and Climate of Asia The Himalayan range is home to some of the planet's highest peaks Asia is the largest continent on Earth It covers of the Earth's total surface area or of its land area and has the largest coastline at kilometres mi Asia is generally defined as comprising the eastern four fifths of Eurasia It is located to the east of the Suez Canal and the Ural Mountains and south of the Caucasus Mountains or the Kuma–Manych Depression and the Caspian and Black Seas It is bounded on the east by the Pacific Ocean on the south by the Indian Ocean and on the north by the Arctic Ocean Asia is subdivided into countries two of them Russia and Turkey having part of their land in Europe

Asia has extremely diverse climates and geographic features Climates range from arctic and subarctic in Siberia to tropical in southern India and Southeast Asia It is moist across southeast sections and dry across much of the interior Some of the largest daily temperature ranges on Earth occur in western sections of Asia The monsoon circulation dominates across southern and eastern sections due to the presence of the Himalayas forcing the formation of a thermal low which draws in moisture during the summer Southwestern sections of the continent are hot Siberia is one of the coldest places in the Northern Hemisphere and can act as a source of arctic air masses for North America The most active place on Earth for tropical cyclone activity lies northeast of the Philippines and south of Japan The Gobi Desert is in Mongolia and the Arabian Desert stretches across much of the Middle East The Yangtze River in China is the longest river in the continent The Himalayas between Nepal and China is the tallest mountain range in the world Tropical rainforests stretch across much of southern Asia and coniferous and deciduous forests lie farther north Kerala backwaters Mongolian steppe South China Karst Altai Mountains Hunza Valley Climate change A survey carried out in by global risk analysis farm Maplecroft identified countries that are extremely vulnerable to climate change Each nation's vulnerability was calculated using socio economic and environmental indicators which identified the likely climate change impacts during the next years The Asian countries of Bangladesh India Vietnam Thailand Pakistan and Sri Lanka were among the countries facing extreme risk from climate change Some shifts are already occurring For example in tropical parts of India with a semi arid climate the temperature increased by °C between and A study by the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi Arid Tropics ICRISAT aimed to find science based pro poor approaches and techniques that would enable Asia's agricultural systems to cope with climate change while benefitting poor and vulnerable farmers The study's recommendations ranged from improving the use of climate information in local planning and strengthening weather based agro advisory services to stimulating diversification of rural household incomes and providing incentives to farmers to adopt natural resource conservation measures to enhance forest cover replenish groundwater and use renewable energy Economy Main article Economy of Asia Singapore has one of the busiest ports in the world and is the world's fourth largest foreign exchange trading center Rank Country GDP PPP millions of USD China India Japan Russia Indonesia South Korea Saudi Arabia Turkey Iran Taiwan Rank Country GDP nominal millions of USD China Japan India Russia South Korea Indonesia Turkey Saudi Arabia Taiwan Iran Asia has the second largest nominal GDP of all continents after Europe but the largest when measured in purchasing power parity As of the largest economies in Asia are China Japan India South Korea and Indonesia Based on Global Office Locations Asia dominated the office locations with of top were in Asia Hong Kong Singapore Tokyo Seoul and Shanghai Around percent of international firms have office in Hong Kong In the late s and early s the economies of the PRC and India have been growing rapidly both with an average annual growth rate of more than Other recent very high growth nations in Asia include Israel Malaysia Indonesia Bangladesh Pakistan Thailand Vietnam Mongolia Uzbekistan Cyprus and the Philippines and mineral rich nations such as Kazakhstan Turkmenistan Iran Brunei United Arab Emirates Qatar Kuwait Saudi Arabia Bahrain and Oman According to economic historian Angus Maddison in his book The World Economy A Millennial Perspective India had the world's largest economy during BCE and BCE China was the largest and most advanced economy on earth for much of recorded history until the British Empire excluding India overtook it in the mid th century For several decades in the late twentieth century Japan was the largest economy in Asia and second largest of any single nation in the world after surpassing the Soviet Union measured in net material product in and Germany in NB A number of supernational economies are larger such as the European Union EU the North American Free Trade Agreement NAFTA or APEC This ended in when China overtook Japan to become the world's second largest economy In the late s and early s Japan's GDP was almost as large current exchange rate method as that of the rest of Asia combined citation needed In Japan's economy nearly equaled that of the USA as the largest economy in the world for a day after the Japanese currency reached a record high of yen US Economic growth in Asia since World War II to the s had been concentrated in Japan as well as the four regions of South Korea Taiwan Hong Kong and Singapore located in the Pacific Rim known as the Asian tigers which have now all received developed country status having the highest GDP per capita in Asia Mumbai is one of the most populous cities on the continent The city is an infrastructure and tourism hub and plays a crucial role in the Economy of India It is forecasted that India will overtake Japan in terms of nominal GDP by By according to Goldman Sachs China will have the largest economy in the world Several trade blocs exist with the most developed being the Association of Southeast Asian Nations Asia is the largest continent in the world by a considerable margin and it is rich in natural resources such as petroleum forests fish water rice copper and silver Manufacturing in Asia has traditionally been strongest in East and Southeast Asia particularly in China Taiwan South Korea Japan India the Philippines and Singapore Japan and South Korea continue to dominate in the area of multinational corporations but increasingly the PRC and India are making significant inroads Many companies from Europe North America South Korea and Japan have operations in Asia's developing countries to take advantage of its abundant supply of cheap labour and relatively developed infrastructure According to Citigroup of Global Growth Generators countries came from Asia driven by population and income growth They are Bangladesh China India Indonesia Iraq Mongolia Philippines Sri Lanka and Vietnam Asia has four main financial centers Tokyo Hong Kong Singapore and Shanghai Call centers and business process outsourcing BPOs are becoming major employers in India and the Philippines due to the availability of a large pool of highly skilled English speaking workers The increased use of outsourcing has assisted the rise of India and the China as financial centers Due to its large and extremely competitive information technology industry India has become a major hub for outsourcing In Asia had million millionaires people with net worth over US million excluding their homes slightly below North America with million millionaires Last year Asia had toppled Europe Citigroup in The Wealth Report stated that Asian centa millionaire overtook North America's wealth for the first time as the world's "economic center of gravity" continued moving east At the end of there were Asian people mainly in Southeast Asia China and Japan who have at least million in disposable assets while North America with people and Western Europe with people Tourism A Thai temple complex with several ornate buildings and a stupa and a lot of visitors Wat Phra Kaeo in the Grand Palace is among Bangkok's major tourist attractions With growing Regional Tourism with domination of Chinese visitors MasterCard has released Global Destination Cities Index with of are dominated by Asia and Pacific Region Cities and also for the first time a city of a country from Asia Bangkok set in the top ranked with international visitors Demographics Main article Demographics of Asia Historical populations Year Pop ± — Source "UN report data" PDF The figure for is provided by PopulationData net East Asia had by far the strongest overall Human Development Index HDI improvement of any region in the world nearly doubling average HDI attainment over the past years according to the report's analysis of health education and income data China the second highest achiever in the world in terms of HDI improvement since is the only country on the "Top Movers" list due to income rather than health or education achievements Its per capita income increased a stunning fold over the last four decades also lifting hundreds of millions out of income poverty Yet it was not among the region's top performers in improving school enrollment and life expectancy Nepal a South Asian country emerges as one of the world's fastest movers since mainly due to health and education achievements Its present life expectancy is years longer than in the s More than four of every five children of school age in Nepal now attend primary school compared to just one in five years ago Japan and South Korea ranked highest among the countries grouped on the HDI number and in the world which are in the "very high human development" category followed by Hong Kong and Singapore Afghanistan ranked lowest amongst Asian countries out of the countries assessed Languages Main article Languages of Asia Asia is home to several language families and many language isolates Most Asian countries have more than one language that is natively spoken For instance according to Ethnologue more than languages are spoken in Indonesia more than languages spoken in India and more than are spoken in the Philippines China has many languages and dialects in different provinces Religions See also Eastern philosophy Religion in Asia and List of Asian mythologies Dome of the Rock on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem a holy city for Judaism Christianity and Islam Pilgrims in the annual Hajj at the Kaabah in Mecca Spring Temple Buddha in Lushan County Henan China is the world's tallest statue Many of the world's major religions have their origins in Asia Asian mythology is complex and diverse The story of the Great Flood for example as presented to Christians in the Old Testament is first found in Mesopotamian mythology in the Epic of Gilgamesh Hindu mythology tells about an Avatar of the God Vishnu in the form of a fish who warned Manu of a terrible flood In ancient Chinese mythology Shan Hai Jing the Chinese ruler Da Yu had to spend years to control a deluge which swept out most of ancient China and was aided by the goddess Nüwa who literally fixed the broken sky through which huge rains were pouring Abrahamic The Abrahamic religions of Judaism Christianity Islam and Bahá'í Faith originated in West Asia Judaism the oldest of the Abrahamic faiths is practiced primarily in Israel the birthplace and historical homeland of the Hebrew nation which today consists equally of those Israelites who remained in Asia North Africa and those who returned from diaspora in Europe North America and other regions though sizable communities continue to live abroad Judaism is the predominant religion in Israel which has a nominal Jewish population of about million though the matter of distinguishing Jewish religious cultural and ethnic identity is a complex one Outside of Israel there are small ancient communities of Jewish still live in Turkey Azerbaijan Iran India and Uzbekistan Christianity is a widespread religion in Asia with more than million adherents according to Pew Research Center in and nearly million according to Britannica Book of the Year constituting around of the total population of Asia In the Philippines and East Timor Roman Catholicism is the predominant religion it was introduced by the Spaniards and the Portuguese respectively In Armenia Cyprus Georgia and Asian Russia Eastern Orthodoxy is the predominant religion Various Christian denominations have adherents in portions of the Middle East as well as China and India Saint Thomas Christians in India trace their origins to the evangelistic activity of Thomas the Apostle in the st century Islam which originated in Saudi Arabia is the largest and most widely spread religion in Asia With of the world Muslim population the country currently with the largest Muslim population in the world is Indonesia followed by Pakistan India Bangladesh Iran and Turkey Mecca Medina and to a lesser extent Jerusalem are the holiest cities for Islam in all the world These religious sites attract large numbers of devotees from all over the world particularly during the Hajj and Umrah seasons Iran is the largest Shi'a country and Pakistan has the largest Ahmadiyya population The Bahá'í Faith originated in Asia in Iran Persia and spread from there to the Ottoman Empire Central Asia India and Burma during the lifetime of Bahá'u'lláh Since the middle of the th century growth has particularly occurred in other Asian countries because Bahá'í activities in many Muslim countries has been severely suppressed by authorities Lotus Temple is a big Baha'i Temple in India Indian and East Asian religions The Swaminarayan Akshardham Temple in Delhi according to the Guinness World Records is the World's Largest Comprehensive Hindu Temple Almost all Asian religions have philosophical character and Asian philosophical traditions cover a large spectrum of philosophical thoughts and writings Indian philosophy includes Hindu philosophy and Buddhist philosophy They include elements of nonmaterial pursuits whereas another school of thought from India Carvaka preached the enjoyment of the material world The religions of Hinduism Buddhism Jainism and Sikhism originated in India South Asia In East Asia particularly in China and Japan Confucianism Taoism and Zen Buddhism took shape As of Hinduism has around billion adherents The faith represents around of Asia's population and is the second largest religion in Asia However it is mostly concentrated in South Asia Over of the populations of both India and Nepal adhere to Hinduism alongside significant communities in Bangladesh Pakistan Bhutan Sri Lanka and Bali Indonesia Many overseas Indians in countries such as Burma Singapore and Malaysia also adhere to Hinduism Buddhism has a great following in mainland Southeast Asia and East Asia Buddhism is the religion of the majority of the populations of Cambodia Thailand Burma – Japan – Bhutan – Sri Lanka Laos – and Mongolia – Large Buddhist populations also exist in Singapore – Taiwan – South Korea – Malaysia – Nepal – Vietnam – China – North Korea – and small communities in India and Bangladesh In many Chinese communities Mahayana Buddhism is easily syncretized with Taoism thus exact religious statistics is difficult to obtain and may be understated or overstated The Communist governed countries of China Vietnam and North Korea are officially atheist thus the number of Buddhists and other religious adherents may be under reported Jainism is found mainly in India and in oversea Indian communities such as the United States and Malaysia Sikhism is found in Northern India and amongst overseas Indian communities in other parts of Asia especially Southeast Asia Confucianism is found predominantly in Mainland China South Korea Taiwan and in overseas Chinese populations Taoism is found mainly in Mainland China Taiwan Malaysia and Singapore Taoism is easily syncretized with Mahayana Buddhism for many Chinese thus exact religious statistics is difficult to obtain and may be understated or overstated Japanese wedding at the Meiji Shrine Hindu festival celebrated by Singapore's Tamil community Orthodox cross procession in Novosibirsk Catholic procession of the Black Nazarene of Manila Muslim men praying in Turkey Modern conflicts U S forces drop Napalm on suspected Viet Cong positions in Wounded civilians arrive at a hospital in Aleppo during the Syrian civil war October Some of the events pivotal in the Asia territory related to the relationship with the outside world in the post Second World War were The Korean War The Vietnam War The Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation The Bangladesh Liberation War The Yom Kippur War The Iranian Revolution The Soviet war in Afghanistan The Iran–Iraq War The Indonesian occupation of East Timor The Cambodian Killing Fields The Insurgency in Laos The Lebanese Civil War The Sri Lankan Civil War The Dissolution of the Soviet Union The Gulf War The Nepalese Civil War The India Pakistan Wars The War in Afghanistan The Iraq War The Thai coup d'état The Burmese Civil War The Saffron Revolution The Arab Spring The Israeli–Palestinian conflict The Syrian Civil War The Sino Indian War The Thai coup d'état The Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant Culture icon This section requires expansion with More information about general cultural topics other than Nobel prizes June Main article Culture of Asia Nobel prizes Bengali polymath Rabindranath Tagore was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in and became Asia's first Nobel laureate The polymath Rabindranath Tagore a Bengali poet dramatist and writer from Santiniketan now in West Bengal India became in the first Asian Nobel laureate He won his Nobel Prize in Literature for notable impact his prose works and poetic thought had on English French and other national literatures of Europe and the Americas He is also the writer of the national anthems of Bangladesh and India Other Asian writers who won Nobel Prize for literature include Yasunari Kawabata Japan Kenzaburo Oe Japan Gao Xingjian China Orhan Pamuk Turkey and Mo Yan China Some may consider the American writer Pearl S Buck an honorary Asian Nobel laureate having spent considerable time in China as the daughter of missionaries and based many of her novels namely The Good Earth and The Mother as well as the biographies of her parents of their time in China The Exile and Fighting Angel all of which earned her the Literature prize in Also Mother Teresa of India and Shirin Ebadi of Iran were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for their significant and pioneering efforts for democracy and human rights especially for the rights of women and children Ebadi is the first Iranian and the first Muslim woman to receive the prize Another Nobel Peace Prize winner is Aung San Suu Kyi from Burma for her peaceful and non violent struggle under a military dictatorship in Burma She is a nonviolent pro democracy activist and leader of the National League for Democracy in Burma Myanmar and a noted prisoner of conscience She is a Buddhist and was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in Chinese dissident Liu Xiaobo was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for "his long and non violent struggle for fundamental human rights in China" on October He is the first Chinese citizen to be awarded a Nobel Prize of any kind while residing in China In Kailash Satyarthi from India and Malala Yousafzai from Pakistan were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize "for their struggle against the suppression of children and young people and for the right of all children to education" Sir C V Raman is the first Asian to get a Nobel prize in Sciences He won the Nobel Prize in Physics "for his work on the scattering of light and for the discovery of the effect named after him" Japan has won the most Nobel Prizes of any Asian nation with followed by India which has won Amartya Sen born November is an Indian economist who was awarded the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences for his contributions to welfare economics and social choice theory and for his interest in the problems of society's poorest members Other Asian Nobel Prize winners include Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar Abdus Salam Robert Aumann Menachem Begin Aaron Ciechanover Avram Hershko Daniel Kahneman Shimon Peres Yitzhak Rabin Ada Yonath Yasser Arafat José Ramos Horta and Bishop Carlos Filipe Ximenes Belo of Timor Leste Kim Dae jung and Japanese scientists Most of the said awardees are from Japan and Israel except for Chandrasekhar and Raman India Salam Pakistan Arafat Palestinian Territories Kim South Korea Horta and Belo Timor Leste In Dr Muhammad Yunus of Bangladesh was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for the establishment of Grameen Bank a community development bank that lends money to poor people especially women in Bangladesh Dr Yunus received his PhD in economics from Vanderbilt University United States He is internationally known for the concept of micro credit which allows poor and destitute people with little or no collateral to borrow money The borrowers typically pay back money within the specified period and the incidence of default is very low The Dalai Lama has received approximately eighty four awards over his spiritual and political career On June he became one of only four people ever to be recognized with Honorary Citizenship by the Governor General of Canada On May he received the Christmas Humphreys Award from the Buddhist Society in the United Kingdom Most notable was the Nobel Peace Prize presented in Oslo Norway on December Political geography Main article Politics of Asia See also List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Asia From to Hong Kong was a British colony Flag Arms Name Population Area km² Capital Afghanistan Emblem of Afghanistan svg Afghanistan Kabul Armenia Coat of arms of Armenia svg Armenia Yerevan Azerbaijan Emblem of Azerbaijan svg Azerbaijan Baku Bahrain Emblem of Bahrain svg Bahrain Manama Bangladesh National emblem of Bangladesh svg Bangladesh Dhaka Bhutan Emblem of Bhutan svg Bhutan Thimphu Brunei Emblem of Brunei svg Brunei Bandar Seri Begawan Cambodia Coat of arms of Cambodia svg Cambodia Phnom Penh China National Emblem of the People's Republic of China svg China PRC Beijing Cyprus Coat of Arms of Cyprus svg Cyprus Nicosia East Timor Coat of arms of East Timor svg East Timor Dili Egypt Coat of arms of Egypt Official svg Egypt Cairo Georgia country Greater coat of arms of Georgia svg Georgia Tbilisi India Emblem of India svg India New Delhi Indonesia National emblem of Indonesia Garuda Pancasila svg Indonesia Jakarta Iran Emblem of Iran svg Iran Tehran Iraq Coat of arms emblem of Iraq svg Iraq Baghdad Israel Emblem of Israel svg Israel Tel Aviv Japan Imperial Seal of Japan svg Japan Tokyo Jordan Coat of arms of Jordan svg Jordan Amman Kazakhstan Emblem of Kazakhstan svg Kazakhstan Astana Kuwait Coat of arms of Kuwait svg Kuwait Kuwait City Kyrgyzstan National emblem of Kyrgyzstan svg Kyrgyzstan Bishkek Laos Emblem of Laos svg Laos Vientiane Lebanon Coat of arms of Lebanon svg Lebanon Beirut Malaysia Coat of arms of Malaysia svg Malaysia Kuala Lumpur Maldives Coat of arms of Maldives svg Maldives Malé Mongolia State emblem of Mongolia svg Mongolia Ulaanbaatar Myanmar State seal of Myanmar svg Myanmar Naypyidaw Nepal Coat of arms of Nepal svg Nepal Kathmandu North Korea Emblem of North Korea svg North Korea Pyongyang Oman National emblem of Oman svg Oman Muscat Pakistan State emblem of Pakistan svg Pakistan Islamabad Philippines Coat of arms of the Philippines svg Philippines Manila Qatar Emblem of Qatar svg Qatar Doha Russia Coat of Arms of the Russian Federation svg Russia Moscow Saudi Arabia Coat of arms of Saudi Arabia svg Saudi Arabia Riyadh Singapore Coat of arms of Singapore blazon svg Singapore Singapore South Korea Emblem of South Korea svg South Korea Seoul Sri Lanka Emblem of Sri Lanka svg Sri Lanka Colombo Syria Coat of arms of Syria svg Syria Damascus Tajikistan Emblem of Tajikistan svg Tajikistan Dushanbe Thailand Garuda Emblem of Thailand svg Thailand Bangkok Turkey Coat of Arms of Turkey svg Turkey Ankara Turkmenistan Emblem of Turkmenistan svg Turkmenistan Ashgabat United Arab Emirates Emblem of the United Arab Emirates svg United Arab Emirates Abu Dhabi Uzbekistan Coat of arms of Uzbekistan svg Uzbekistan Tashkent Vietnam Coat of arms of Vietnam svg Vietnam Hanoi Yemen Emblem of Yemen svg Yemen Sana'a Within the above mentioned states are several de facto independent countries with limited to no international recognition None of them are members of the UN Flag Arms Name Population Area km² Capital Abkhazia Coat of arms of Abkhazia svg Abkhazia Sukhumi Nagorno Karabakh Republic Coat of arms of Nagorno Karabakh svg Nagorno Karabakh Stepanakert Northern Cyprus Coat of arms of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus svg Northern Cyprus Nicosia State of Palestine Coat of arms of State of Palestine Official png Palestine Ramallah Gaza East Jerusalem South Ossetia Coat of arms of South Ossetia svg South Ossetia Tskhinvali Taiwan Republic of China National Emblem svg Taiwan ROC Taipei See also Main articles Outline of Asia and Index of Asia related articles References to articles Subregions of Asia Pan Asianism also known as Asianism or Greater Asianism is an ideology that promotes the unity of Asian peoples Contents hide Japanese Asianism New Greater Asianism from Modern China Chinese Communist Asianism Pan Southeast Asianism "Third Way" from the Postcolonial World Asian Unionism See also References Bibliography Further reading Japanese Asianism edit Greater East Asia Conference in November Participants Left to right Ba Maw Zhang Jinghui Wang Jingwei Hideki Tojo Wan Waithayakon José P Laurel Subhas Chandra Bose Pre World War II Japanese Pan Asianism was at its core the idea that Asia should unite against European imperialism Before and during World War II this was a major element in Japanese propaganda to justify Japanese external invasions The Greater East Asia Co Prosperity Sphere was an example of this propaganda Japanese Asianism developed in intertwining among debates on solidarity with Asian nations who were under pressure of the West and on aggressive expansion to the Asian continent The former debates originated from liberalism Their ideologues were Tokichi Tarui – who argued for equal Japan Korea unionization for cooperative defence against the Western powers and Kentaro Oi – who attempted domestic constitutional government in Japan and reforms of Korea Pan Asian thought in Japan began to develop in the late th century and was spurred on particularly following the defeat of Russia in the Russo Japanese War – This created interest from Rabindranath Tagore Sun Yat sen and Sri Aurobindo The growing official interest in broader Asian concerns was shown in the establishment of facilities for Indian Studies In Tokyo Imperial University set up a chair in Sanskrit and Kawi with a further chair in comparative religion being set up in In this environment a number of Indian students came to Japan in the early twentieth century founding the Oriental Youngmen's Association in Their anti British political activity caused consternation to the Indian Government following a report in the London Spectator However Japanese society had been strongly inclined to ultranationalism from the Freedom and People's Rights Movement The latter debates on aggressive expansionism to Asia became clearly apparent Their representatives were the Black Ocean Society and the Black Dragon Society The Black Dragon Society argued for Japanese imperialism and expansionism and they led to a debate on securing the Asian continent under Japanese control Exceptionally Ryohei Uchida – who was a member of the Black Dragon Society was a Japan Korea unionist and activist of Philippines and Chinese revolutions Toten Miyazaki – consistently supported a Chinese revolution of Sun Yat sen with spiritual sacrifice and sympathy under imperial Japan Okakura Kakuzo – criticized Western imperialism as a destroyer of human beauty and argued for romantic solidarity with diverse "Asia as one" against Western civilization ASIA is one The Himalayas divide only to accentuate two mighty civilisations the Chinese with its communism of Confucius and the Indian with its individualism of the Vedas But not even the snowy barriers can interrupt for one moment that broad expanse of love for the Ultimate and Universal which is the common thought inheritance of every Asiatic race enabling them to produce all the great religions of the world and distinguishing them from those maritime peoples of the Mediterranean and the Baltic who love to dwell on the Particular and to search out the means not the end of life In this Okakura was utilising the Japanese concept of sangoku which existed in Japanese culture before the concept of Asia became popularised Sangoku literally means the "three countries" Honshu the largest island of Japan Kara China and Tenjiku India However most Asianists were nationalistic and imperialistic and were connected with rightist clarification needed organizations They discussed self righteous solidarity which led to ideology such as a "new order" of East Asia and "Greater East Asia Co prosperity Sphere" based on Japanese supremacy New Greater Asianism from Modern China edit In a Chinese perspective Japanese Asianism was interpreted as a rationalized ideology for Japanese military aggression and political absorption cf Twenty One Demands In Li Dazhao – argued for liberation of Asian nations and equal greater Asian union In Sun Yat sen – stated that the West was hegemonic and the East was Confucian and he argued for full independence by resisting colonialism with "Greater Asianism" which unified Asian nations Chinese Communist Asianism edit After the success of the communist revolution the then national leader Mao Zedong and the rest of the national leadership sought to actively and aggressive pursue a foreign policy in which all communist revolutions occurring in China's neighbors apparently all of East and parts of South Asia are to be promoted and supported suggestively meaning those nations after which they became Chinese supported communist states be included under the yoke of Chinese communism Pan Southeast Asianism edit After Indonesian National Revolution against Dutch colonialism Sukarno's vision of Majapahit revival was to abolish the western colonial hegemony in Southeast Asia especially in Malay Archipelago His goal was to abolish all western imperialism and vanquish neocolonialism and opposed the British formation of the Malay federation in calling it a neo colonialist puppet state and established by the former colonial government formed as a threat to other sovereign Asian nations and thus was not allowed to exist In President Sukarno Philippines president Diosdado Macapagal and Yang di Pertuan Negara Singaporean Yusof bin Ishak secretly met and agrees on the formation of Maphilindo a confederate union between Malaya Philippines Indonesia and agreed that Sarawak in Borneo was not to join Malaysia but to be incorporated into Indonesia and Sabah was to be incorporated into the Sulu Archipelago as it was in pre colonial mapping The Indonesian opposition against the formation of Malaysia led to a confrontation between the two countries Britain retaliated and launched full scale assaults against the Indonesian forces TNI The confrontation was declared in but abruptly ended in due to the political crisis caused by the failed coup d'etat by the Indonesian Communist Party PKI where six generals were abducted and brutally murdered causing the fall of Sukarno and the Konfrontasi ended Over mobilized troops and over million volunteers disengaged all aggression and disbanded with the fall of Sukarno ended the vision of Pan Southeast Asianism The Southeast Asian region was profoundly affected by the Cold War during the Vietnam War Moving beyond the regional rivalry five Southeast Asian states Indonesia Malaysia the Philippines Singapore and Thailand responded to the threat by forming regional alliance by forming ASEAN in It was probably originally formed to prevent the expansion of communism in Southeast Asia as it happened in Vietnam However its membership was expanded later to all Southeast Asian nations including the socialist communist states such as Vietnam and Laos Today ASEAN provides a framework for cooperation in Southeast Asia aspiring to form a Southeast Asian Community an ideal of Pan Southeast Asianism "Third Way" from the Postcolonial World edit Main article Non Aligned Movement After the World War II Jawaharlal Nehru – of India argued for neutral Third Way during the Cold War His assertion was Asian nations should be fair to both American and Soviet sides and the United Nations should be strong and independent who played a role to balance the world power politics However the North–South divide show that the postcolonial world has been confronted with economic independence and development During the Cold War Pan Asianism took a back seat Several parts of Asia particularly the Korean Peninsula and Vietnam were torn apart between the two superpowers the United States and the Soviet Union Several countries like India Cambodia and Indonesia advocated for greater ties with the rest of the developing world within and beyond Asia while others were economically and politically more orientated towards either one of the superpowers Asian Unionism edit Political leaders from Sun Yat sen in the s and s to Mahathir Mohamad in the s argue that the political models and ideologies of Europe lack values and concepts found in Asian societies and philosophies Some who proponents argue that these values are better for all human societies Some who would argue that they are better or more suited for Asian societies European values such as individual rights and freedoms would not be suited for Asian societies in this extreme formulation of Pan Asianism The idea of Asian values is somewhat of a resurgence of Pan Asianism One foremost enthusiast of the idea was the former Prime Minister of Singapore Lee Kuan Yew In India Rammanohar Lohia dreamed of a united socialist Asia In a new type of continent wide "Asian Union" in the form of the Asia Cooperation Dialogue ACD emerged similar to European Union See also edit Asian Relations Conference Bandung Conference Association of Southeast Asian Nations to the present East Asian Community South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation Asia Cooperation Dialogue Pan nationalism Special topics Asian Century Asian cuisine Asian furniture Asian Games Asian Monetary Unit Asian people Eastern world Eurasia Far East East Asia Southeast Asia South Asia Central Asia Fauna of Asia Flags of Asia Middle East Eastern Mediterranean Levant Near East Pan Asianism Lists List of cities in Asia List of metropolitan areas in Asia by population List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Asia Yutaka Taniyama mathematician Ryogo Kubo mathematical physicist Hantaro Nagaoka physicist Ukichiro Nakaya physicist Yoshio Nishina physicist Yoji Totsuka physicist Katsusaburo Yamagiwa pathologist Kitasato Shibasaburo physician and bacteriologist Kikunae Ikeda chemist Jokichi Takamine chemist Umetaro Suzuki chemist VII Supplementary Rules Imperial sovereignty edit Unlike its modern successor the Meiji Constitution was founded on the principle that sovereignty resided in person of the Emperor by virtue of his divine ancestry "unbroken for ages eternal" rather than in the people Article states that the "Emperor is the head of the Empire combining in himself the rights of sovereignty" The Emperor nominally at least united within himself all three branches executive legislative and judiciary of government although legislation article and the budget article were subject to the "consent of the Imperial Diet" Laws were issued and justice administered by the courts "in the name of the Emperor" Separate provisions of the Constitution are contradictory as to whether the Constitution or the Emperor is supreme Article declares him to be "sacred and inviolable" a formula which was construed by hard line monarchists to mean that he retained the right to withdraw the constitution or her uncle Edward, Prince of Wales, and her father, the Duke of York. Although her birth generated public interest, she was not expected to become queen, as the Prince of Wales was still young, and many assumed that he would marry and have children of his own.[15] When her grandfather died in 1936 and her uncle succeeded as Edward VIII, she became second-in-line to the throne, after her father. Later that year Edward abdicated, after his proposed marriage to divorced socialite Wallis Simpson provoked a constitutional crisis.[16] Consequently, Elizabeth's father became king, and she became heir presumptive. If her parents had had a later son, she would have lost her position as first-in-line, as her brother would have been heir apparent and above her in the line of succession.[17] Elizabeth received private tuition in constitutional history from Henry Marten, Vice-Provost of Eton College,[18] and learned French from a succession of native-speaking governesses.[19] A Girl Guides company, the 1st Buckingham Palace Company, was formed specifically so that she could socialise with girls her own age.[20] Later, she was enrolled as a Sea Ranger.[19] In 1939, Elizabeth's parents toured Canada and the United States. As in 1927, when her parents had toured Australia and New Zealand, Elizabeth remained in Britain, since her father thought her too young to undertake public tours.[21] Elizabeth "looked tearful" as her parents departed.[22] They corresponded regularly,[22] and she and her parents made the first royal transatlantic telephone call on 18 May.[21] Second World War In September 1939, Britain entered the Second World War, which lasted until 1945. During the war, many of London's children were evacuated to avoid the frequent aerial bombing. The suggestion by senior politician Lord Hailsham[23] that the two princesses should be evacuated to Canada was rejected by Elizabeth's mother, who declared, "The children won't go without me. I won't leave without the King. And the King will never leave."[24] Princesses Elizabeth and Margaret stayed at Balmoral Castle, Scotland, until Christmas 1939, when they moved to Sandringham House, Norfolk.[25] From February to May 1940, they lived at Royal Lodge, Windsor, until moving to Windsor Castle, where they lived for most of the next five years.[26] At Windsor, the princesses staged pantomimes at Christmas in aid of the Queen's Wool Fund, which bought yarn to knit into military garments.[27] In 1940, the 14-year-old Elizabeth made her first radio broadcast during the BBC's Children's Hour, addressing other children who had been evacuated from the cities.[28] She stated: We are trying to do all we can to help our gallant sailors, soldiers and airmen, and we are trying, too, to bear our share of the danger and sadness of war. We know, every one of us, that in the end all will be well.[28] Elizabeth in Auxiliary Territorial Service uniform, April 1945 Princess Elizabeth (left, in uniform) on the balcony of Buckingham Palace with (left to right) her mother Queen Elizabeth, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, King George VI, and Princess Margaret, 8 May 1945 In 1943, at the age of 16, Elizabeth undertook her first solo public appearance on a visit to the Grenadier Guards, of which she had been appointed colonel the previous year.[29] As she approached her 18th birthday, the law was changed so that she could act as one of five Counsellors of State in the event of her father's incapacity or absence abroad, such as his visit to Italy in July 1944.[30] In February 1945, she joined the Women's Auxiliary Territorial Service as an honorary second subaltern with the service number of 230873.[31] She trained as a driver and mechanic and was promoted to honorary junior commander five months later.[32][33] At the end of the war in Europe, on Victory in Europe Day, Princesses Elizabeth and Margaret mingled anonymously with the celebratory crowds in the streets of London. Elizabeth later said in a rare interview, "We asked my parents if we could go out and see for ourselves. I remember we were terrified of being recognised ... I remember lines of unknown people linking arms and walking down Whitehall, all of us just swept along on a tide of happiness and relief."[34] During the war, plans were drawn up to quell Welsh nationalism by affiliating Elizabeth more closely with Wales. Proposals, such as appointing her Constable of Caernarfon Castle or a patron of Urdd Gobaith Cymru (the Welsh League of Youth), were abandoned for various reasons, which included a fear of associating Elizabeth with conscientious objectors in the Urdd, at a time when Britain was at war.[35] Welsh politicians suggested that she be made Princess of Wales on her 18th birthday. The idea was supported by the Home Secretary, Herbert Morrison, but rejected by the King because he felt such a title belonged solely to the wife of a Prince of Wales and the Prince of Wales had always been the heir apparent.[36] In 1946, she was inducted into the Welsh Gorsedd of Bards at the National Eisteddfod of Wales.[37] In 1947, Princess Elizabeth went on her first overseas tour, accompanying her parents through southern Africa. During the tour, in a broadcast to the British Commonwealth on her 21st birthday, she made the following pledge: I declare before you all that my whole life, whether it be long or short, shall be devoted to your service and the service of our great imperial family to which we all belong.[38] Marriage and family Main article: Wedding of Princess Elizabeth and Philip Mountbatten, Duke of Edinburgh Elizabeth met her future husband, Prince Philip of Greece and Denmark, in 1934 and 1937.[39] They are second cousins once removed through King Christian IX of Denmark and third cousins through Queen Victoria. After another meeting at the Royal Naval College in Dartmouth in July 1939, Elizabeth—though only 13 years old—said she fell in love with Philip and they began to exchange letters.[40] Their engagement was officially announced on 9 July 1947.[41] The engagement was not without controversy: Philip had no financial standing, was foreign-born (though a British subject who had served in the Royal Navy throughout the Second World War), and had sisters who had married German noblemen with Nazi links.[42] Marion Crawford wrote, "Some of the King's advisors did not think him good enough for her. He was a prince without a home or kingdom. Some of the papers played long and loud tunes on the string of Philip's foreign origin."[43] Elizabeth's mother was reported, in later biographies, to have opposed the union initially, even dubbing Philip "The Hun".[44] In later life, however, she told biographer Tim Heald that Philip was "an English gentleman".[45] Before the marriage, Philip renounced his Greek and Danish titles, converted from Greek Orthodoxy to Anglicanism, and adopted the style Lieutenant Philip Mountbatten, taking the surname of his mother's British family.[46] Just before the wedding, he was created Duke of Edinburgh and granted the style His Royal Highness.[47] Elizabeth and Philip were married on 20 November 1947 at Westminster Abbey. They received 2500 wedding gifts from around the world.[48] Because Britain had not yet completely recovered from the devastation of the war, Elizabeth required ration coupons to buy the material for her gown, which was designed by Norman Hartnell.[49] In post-war Britain, it was not acceptable for the Duke of Edinburgh's German relations, including his three surviving sisters, to be invited to the wedding.[50] The Duke of Windsor, formerly King Edward VIII, was not invited either.[51] Elizabeth gave birth to her first child, Prince Charles, on 14 November 1948. One month earlier, the King had issued letters patent allowing her children to use the style and title of a royal prince or princess, to which they otherwise would not have been entitled as their father was no longer a royal prince.[52] A second child, Princess Anne, was born in 1950.[53] Following their wedding, the couple leased Windlesham Moor, near Windsor Castle, until 4 July 1949,[48] when they took up residence at Clarence House in London. At various times between 1949 and 1951, the Duke of Edinburgh was stationed in the British Crown Colony of Malta as a serving Royal Navy officer. He and Elizabeth lived intermittently, for several months at a time, in the hamlet of Gwardamanga, at Villa Guardamangia, the rented home of Philip's uncle, Lord Mountbatten. The children remained in Britain.[54] Reign Accession and coronation Elizabeth in crown and robes next to her husband in military uniform Coronation portrait of Queen Elizabeth II and the Duke of Edinburgh, June 1953 Coronation of Elizabeth II Main article: Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II During 1951, George VI's health declined and Elizabeth frequently stood in for him at public events. When she toured Canada and visited President Harry S. Truman in Washington, D.C., in October 1951, her private secretary, Martin Charteris, carried a draft accession declaration in case the King died while she was on tour.[55] In early 1952, Elizabeth and Philip set out for a tour of Australia and New Zealand by way of Kenya. On 6 February 1952, they had just returned to their Kenyan home, Sagana Lodge, after a night spent at Treetops Hotel, when word arrived of the death of the King and consequently Elizabeth's immediate accession to the throne. Philip broke the news to the new Queen.[56] Martin Charteris asked her to choose a regnal name; she chose to remain Elizabeth, "of course".[57] She was proclaimed queen throughout her realms and the royal party hastily returned to the United Kingdom.[58] She and the Duke of Edinburgh moved into Buckingham Palace.[59] With Elizabeth's accession, it seemed probable that the royal house would bear her husband's name, becoming the House of Mountbatten, in line with the custom of a wife taking her husband's surname on marriage. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and Elizabeth's grandmother, Queen Mary, favoured the retention of the House of Windsor, and so on 9 April 1952 Elizabeth issued a declaration that Windsor would continue to be the name of the royal house. The Duke complained, "I am the only man in the country not allowed to give his name to his own children."[60] In 1960, after the death of Queen Mary in 1953 and the resignation of Churchill in 1955, the surname Mountbatten-Windsor was adopted for Philip and Elizabeth's male-line descendants who do not carry royal titles.[61] Amid preparations for the coronation, Princess Margaret informed her sister that she wished to marry Peter Townsend, a divorcé‚ 16 years Margaret's senior, with two sons from his previous marriage. The Queen asked them to wait for a year; in the words of Martin Charteris, "the Queen was naturally sympathetic towards the Princess, but I think she thought—she hoped—given time, the affair would peter out."[62] Senior politicians were against the match and the Church of England did not permit remarriage after divorce. If Margaret had contracted a civil marriage, she would have been expected to renounce her right of succession.[63] Eventually, she decided to abandon her plans with Townsend.[64] In 1960, she married Antony Armstrong-Jones, who was created Earl of Snowdon the following year. They were divorced in 1978; she did not remarry.[65] Despite the death of Queen Mary on 24 March, the coronation on 2 June 1953 went ahead as planned, as Mary had asked before she died.[66] The ceremony in Westminster Abbey, with the exception of the anointing and communion, was televised for the first time.[67][d] Elizabeth's coronation gown was embroidered on her instructions with the floral emblems of Commonwealth countries:[71] English Tudor rose; Scots thistle; Welsh leek; Irish shamrock; Australian wattle; Canadian maple leaf; New Zealand silver fern; South African protea; lotus flowers for India and Ceylon; and Pakistan's wheat, cotton, and jute.[72] Continuing evolution of the Commonwealth Further information: Historical development of the Commonwealth realms, from the Queen's accession The Commonwealth realms (pink) and their territories and protectorates (red) at the beginning of Elizabeth II's reign A formal group of Elizabeth in tiara and evening dress with eleven politicians in evening dress or national costume. Elizabeth II and Commonwealth leaders at the 1960 Commonwealth Conference, Windsor Castle From Elizabeth's birth onwards, the British Empire continued its transformation into the Commonwealth of Nations.[73] By the time of her accession in 1952, her role as head of multiple independent states was already established.[74] Spanning 1953–54, the Queen and her husband embarked on a six-month around-the-world tour. She became the first reigning monarch of Australia and New Zealand to visit those nations.[75] During the tour, crowds were immense; three-quarters of the population of Australia were estimated to have seen her.[76] Throughout her reign, the Queen has undertaken state visits to foreign countries and tours of Commonwealth ones and she is the most widely travelled head of state.[77] In 1956, French Prime Minister Guy Mollet and British Prime Minister Sir Anthony Eden discussed the possibility of France joining the Commonwealth. The proposal was never accepted and the following year France signed the Treaty of Rome, which established the European Economic Community, the precursor of the European Union.[78] In November 1956, Britain and France invaded Egypt in an ultimately unsuccessful attempt to capture the Suez Canal. Lord Mountbatten claimed the Queen was opposed to the invasion, though Eden denied it. Eden resigned two months later.[79] The absence of a formal mechanism within the Conservative Party for choosing a leader meant that, following Eden's resignation, it fell to the Queen to decide whom to commission to form a government. Eden recommended that she consult Lord Salisbury, the Lord President of the Council. Lord Salisbury and Lord Kilmuir, the Lord Chancellor, consulted the British Cabinet, Winston Churchill, and the Chairman of the backbench 1922 Committee, resulting in the Queen appointing their recommended candidate: Harold Macmillan.[80] The Suez crisis and the choice of Eden's successor led in 1957 to the first major personal criticism of the Queen. In a magazine, which he owned and edited,[81] Lord Altrincham accused her of being "out of touch".[82] Altrincham was denounced by public figures and slapped by a member of the public appalled by his comments.[83] Aleksejs Širovs born – chess player Andris Škele born – politician Prime Minister of Latvia Armands Škele – basketball player Ksenia Solo born – actress Ernests Štalbergs – – architect ensemble of the Freedom Monument Izaks Nahmans Šteinbergs – – politician lawyer and author Maris Štrombergs – BMX cyclist gold medal winner at and Olympics T edit Esther Takeuchi born – materials scientist and chemical engineer Mihails Tals – – the th World Chess Champion Janis Roberts Tilbergs – – painter sculptor U edit Guntis Ulmanis born – president of Latvia Karlis Ulmanis – – prime minister and president of Latvia


abby-lane abby-rode abigail-clayton ada-tauler addie-juniper addison-cain adele-wiesenthal adeline-lange adeline-pollicina adriana-amante adrianna-laurenti adrianna-russo agnes agnes-ardant agnes-zalontai aimee-addison aisha-sun aja aleena-ferari alessandra-schiavo aletta-ocean alexandra-nice alexandria-cass alexa-parks alex-dane alex-foxe alexia-knight alexis-devell alexis-firestone alexis-greco alexis-payne alexis-x alex-storm alex-white aliana-love alice-springs alicia-alighatti alicia-monet alicia-rio alicyn-sterling alighiera-olena ali-moore aline-santos alissa-ashley allysin-chaynes alysin-embers alyssa-love alyssa-reece amanda-addams amanda-blake amanda-blue amanda-jane-adams amanda-rae amanda-stone amanda-tyler amber-hunt amberlina-lynn amber-lynn amber-michaels amber-peach amber-wild amber-woods ambrosia-fox amia-miley ami-rodgers amy-allison amy-brooke amy-rose amy-starz anastasia-christ anastasia-sands andrea-adams andrea-brittian andrea-lange andrea-true andy angel 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carmel-nougat carmen-blonde carmen-de-la-torre carmen-moore carmen-rose carol-connors carol-cross carol-cummings carole-dubois carole-gire carole-pierac carol-titian carolyn-connoly carolyn-monroe carrie-cruise cassandra-leigh cassidy cassie-courtland cataline-bullock catherine-count catherine-crystal catherine-ringer catherine-tailleferre cathy-delorme cathy-menard cathy-stewart celeste-fox celine-gallone chanel-preston chanel-price chantal-virapin chanta-rose chantelle-stevens charisma charisma-cole charlie-latour charlie-waters charlotte-de-castille charmane-star chasey-lain chayse-manhattan chaz-vincent chelsea-sinclaire chennin-blanc cheri-janvier cheri-taylor cherry-hill chessie-moore cheyenne-hunter cheyenne-silver china-lee china-leigh china-moon chloe-cruize chloe-dior chloe-kez chloe-stevens chris-collins chris-jordan chris-petersen chrissie-beauchamp christa-abel christa-ludwig christie-ford christi-lake christina-berg christina-blond christina-evol christina-skye christine-black christine-chavert christine-neona christine-rigoler christy-canyon cicciolina cindi-stephens cindy-carver cindy-crawford cindy-more cindy-shepard cindy-wong cinthya-marinho clair-dia claire-robbins claude-janna claudia-jackson claudia-jamsson claudia-mehringer claudia-nero claudia-van-statt claudia-zante claudine-beccarie clea-carson cleo-nichole cleo-patra cody-lane cody-love cody-nicole coffee-brown colleen-brennan connie-bennett connie-peterson constance-money copper-penny coreena corey-everson corinne-lemoine corneliah cory-everson cory-wolf courtney courtney-cummz courtney-james cris-cassidy crissy-moran cris-taliana crystal-breeze crystal-dawn crystal-holland crystal-knight crystal-lake crystal-lovin crystal-sync csilla-kalnay cuban-bee cynara-fox cyndee-summers cynthia-black cynthia-brooks cynthia-hammers cynthia-lavigne dagmar-lost daisy-layne dallas-miko dana-dylan dana-lynn danica-rhea daniela-nanou daniela-schiffer daniele-troeger daniella daniella-schiffer danielle danielle-foxxx danielle-rodgers danny-ricci danyel-cheeks daphne daphne-rosen darby-lloyd-rains darla-crane darla-delovely davia-ardell dayton-rain debbie-northrup debbie-revenge debbie-van-gils debi-diamond debi-jointed debra-lynn deidra-hopkins deidre-holland delania-raffino delia-moore delphine-thail delta-force delta-white demi-moor denice-klarskov denise-derringer denise-dior denise-sloan desiree-cousteau desiree-foxx desiree-lane desiree-west deva-station devin-devasquez devinn-lane devon-shire dia diana-holt diana-kisabonyi diana-siefert diana-stevenson diane-dubois diane-richards diane-sloan diane-suresne dido-angel dillan-lauren dina-deville dina-jewel dina-pearl ditty-blue diva divinity-love djiana dolly-darkley dominique dominique-dewitt dominique-saint-claire donna-hart donna-marie dorle-buchner dorothy-lemay dorothy-onan drea drimla dru-berrymore dusty-rose dyanna-lauren ebony-ayes edina-blond edita-ungerova edwige-faillel eileen-wells elaine-southern elena-berkova elena-maria-ricci eleonore-melzer elisabeth-bure elis-black elise elise-di-medici elle-devyne elle-rio elodie-delage elsa-maroussia elza-brown emili-doll emily-evermoore emily-george emily-jewel emmanuelle-pareze envy-mi erica-boyer erica-eaton erica-havens erica-idol erica-lauren erika-bella erika-cool erika-heaven erika-lockett esme-monroe eva-allen eva-angel eva-dionisio eva-gross eva-kleber eva-lux eva-uettori eve-laurence evelyne-lang evie-delatosso fabiana-venturi faith-stevens fallon fanny-garreau fanny-steel faye-runaway flame flick-shagwell flore-soller flower france-lomay france-quenie francoise frankie-leigh gabriella gabriella-mirelba gabriella-vincze gail-force gail-palmer gail-sterling georgette-saunders georgia-peach georgina-spelvin gia-givanna gianna-lynn gili-sky gina-carrera gina-gianetti gina-janssen gina-lee gina-martell gina-valentino ginger-jay ginger-lee ginger-lynn ginny-noack giovanna gisela-schwarz giselle-monet gladys-laroche gloria-leonard gloria-todd golden-jade greta-carlson greta-milos guia-lauri-filzi gwenda-farnel hare-krane harley-raine hayley-jade hazel-young heather-deeley heather-ellis heather-hart heather-lere heather-lyn heather-manfield heather-thomas heather-torrance heather-wayne heather-young helen-madigan helen-thomas helga-sven helga-wild hillary-summers holly-hollywood holly-joy holly-page holly-ryder honey-winter hottie-hollie hyapatia-lee ida-fabry ildiko-smits illana-moor ines-ridere ingrid-choray isabella-dior isabella-soprano isabelle-allay isabelle-brell isabelle-marchall isobel-wren iveta ivette-blanche jackie-right jacqueline-lorians jacy-allen jada-stevens jade-east jade-hsu jade-marcela jade-summers jade-wong jahn-gold jamie-brooks jamie-james jamie-summers jana-irrova jana-mrazkova jane-baker jane-darling jane-iwanoff jane-lindsay jane-lixx janet-jacme janey-robbins jasmine-delatori jayden-simone jaylyn-rose jayna-woods jazella-moore jazmin-luna-gold jean-afrique jeanette-littledove 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kapri-styles kara-nox karen-summer kari-foxx karine-gambier karin-schubert karli-sweet karmen-kennedy karol-castro kascha kassi-nova kat kate-frost kate-jones kathia-nobili kathleen-gentry kathleen-white kathy-divan kathy-harcourt kathy-heart kathy-kash katie-cummings katja-love kat-langer katrina-isis katrina-kraven katy-borman katy-caro kaycee-dean kayla-kupcakes kay-parker k-c-valentine keama-kim keira-moon keisha keli-richards kelli-tyler kelly-adams kelly-blue kelly-broox kelly-hearn kelly-kay kelly-kline kelly-nichols kelly-royce kelly-skyline kendra-kay kenzi-marie keri-windsor ketthy-divan kianna-dior kiley-heart kim-alexis kimber-blake kimberly-carson kimberly-kane kimberly-kyle kim-de-place kim-holland kimi-gee kimkim-de kim-kitaine kimmie-lee kimmy-nipples kina-kara kira-eggers kira-red kirsty-waay kitty-langdon kitty-lynxxx kitty-marie kitty-shayne kitty-yung kora-cummings kris-lara krista-lane krista-maze kristara-barrington kristarah-knight kristi-klenot kristina-blonde 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lise-pinson little-oral-annie liza-dwyer liza-harper lizzy-borden logan-labrent lois-ayres lola-cait long-jean-silver loni-bunny loni-sanders loona-luxx lorelei-lee lorelei-rand lorena-sanchez lori-alexia lori-blue lorrie-lovett luci-diamond lucie-doll lucie-theodorova lucy-van-dam lydia-baum lynn-franciss lynn-lemay lynn-ray lynn-stevens lynx-canon lysa-thatcher madelina-ray madison-parker magdalena-lynn maggie-randall mai-lin mandi-wine mandy-bright mandy-malone mandy-may mandy-mistery mandy-starr marcia-minor maren margit-ojetz margitta-hofer margo-stevens margot-mahler mariah-cherry marianne-aubert maria-tortuga marie-anne marie-christine-chireix marie-christine-veroda marie-claude-moreau marie-dominique-cabannes marie-france-morel marie-luise-lusewitz marie-sharp marilyn-chambers marilyne-leroy marilyn-gee marilyn-jess marilyn-martyn marilyn-star marina-hedman marion-webb marita-ekberg marita-kemper marlena marlene-willoughby marry-queen martine-grimaud martine-schultz maryanne-fisher mary-hubay mary-ramunno mary-stuart mascha-mouton maud-kennedy mauvais-denoir maxine-tyler maya-black maya-france megan-leigh megan-martinez megan-reece mei-ling melanie-hotlips melanie-scott melba-cruz melinda-russell melissa-bonsardo melissa-del-prado melissa-golden melissa-martinez melissa-melendez melissa-monet mercedes-dragon mercedes-lynn merle-michaels mesha-lynn mia-beck mia-lina mia-smiles michele-raven michelle-aston michelle-ferrari michelle-greco michelle-maren michelle-maylene michelle-monroe micki-lynn mika-barthel mika-tan mikki-taylor mimi-morgan mindy-rae ming-toy miranda-stevens miss-bunny miss-meadow miss-pomodoro missy missy-graham missy-stone missy-vega misti-jane mistress-candice misty-anderson misty-dawn misty-rain misty-regan mona-lisa mona-page moni monica-baal monica-swinn monika-peta monika-sandmayr monika-unco monique-bruno monique-cardin monique-charell monique-demoan monique-gabrielle monique-la-belle morgan-fairlane morrigan-hel moxxie-maddron mulani-rivera mysti-may nadege-arnaud nadia-styles nadine-bronx nadine-proutnal nadine-roussial nadi-phuket nanci-suiter nancy-hoffman nancy-vee natacha-delyro natalia-wood natalli-diangelo natascha-throat natasha-skyler naudia-nyce nessa-devil nessy-grant nesty nicki-hunter nicky-reed nicole-berg nicole-bernard nicole-black nicole-grey nicole-london nicole-parks nicole-scott nicole-taylor nicolette-fauludi nicole-west nika-blond nika-mamic niki-cole nikita-love nikita-rush nikki-charm nikki-grand nikki-king nikki-knight nikki-randall nikki-rhodes nikki-santana nikki-steele nikki-wilde niko nina-cherry nina-deponca nina-hartley nina-preta oana-efria obaya-roberts olesja-derevko olga-cabaeva olga-conti olga-pechova olga-petrova olivia-alize olivia-del-rio olivia-flores olivia-la-roche olivia-outre ophelia-tozzi orchidea-keresztes orsolya-blonde paige-turner paisley-hunter pamela-bocchi pamela-jennings pamela-mann pamela-stanford pamela-stealt pandora paola-albini pascale-vital pat-manning pat-rhea patricia-dale patricia-diamond patricia-kennedy patricia-rhomberg patrizia-predan patti-cakes patti-petite paula-brasile paula-harlow paula-morton paula-price paula-winters pauline-teutscher penelope-pumpkins penelope-valentin petra-hermanova petra-lamas peyton-lafferty phaedra-grant pia-snow piper-fawn pipi-anderson porsche-lynn porsha-carrera precious-silver priscillia-lenn purple-passion queeny-love rachel-ashley rachel-love rachel-luv rachel-roxxx rachel-ryan rachel-ryder racquel-darrian rane-revere raven reagan-maddux rebecca-bardoux regan-anthony regine-bardot regula-mertens reina-leone reka-gabor renae-cruz renee-foxx renee-lovins renee-morgan renee-perez renee-summers renee-tiffany rhonda-jo-petty rikki-blake riley-ray rio-mariah rita-ricardo roberta-gemma roberta-pedon robin-byrd robin-cannes robin-everett robin-sane rochell-starr rosa-lee-kimball rosemarie roxanne-blaze roxanne-hall roxanne-rollan ruby-richards sabina-k sabre sabrina-chimaera sabrina-dawn sabrina-jade sabrina-johnson sabrina-love-cox sabrina-mastrolorenzi sabrina-rose sabrina-scott sabrina-summers sacha-davril sahara sahara-sands sai-tai-tiger samantha-fox samantha-ryan samantha-sterlyng samantha-strong samueline-de-la-rosa sandra-cardinale sandra-de-marco sandra-kalermen sandra-russo sandy-lee sandy-pinney sandy-reed sandy-samuel sandy-style sandy-summers sara-brandy-canyon sara-faye sarah-bernard sarah-cabrera sarah-hevyn sarah-mills sarah-shine sara-sloane sasha sasha-hollander sasha-ligaya sasha-rose satine-phoenix satin-summer savannah-stern savanna-jane scarlet-scarleau scarlet-windsor seka selena serena serena-south severine-amoux shana-evans shanna-mccullough shannon-kelly shannon-rush shantell-day sharon-da-vale sharon-kane sharon-mitchell shaun-michelle shawna-sexton shawnee-cates shay-hendrix shayne-ryder sheena-horne sheer-delight shelby-star shelby-stevens shelly-berlin shelly-lyons sheri-st-clair sheyla-cats shonna-lynn shyla-foxxx shy-love sierra-sinn sierra-skye sigrun-theil silver-starr silvia-bella silvia-saint silvie-de-lux silvy-taylor simone-west sindee-coxx sindy-lange sindy-shy siobhan-hunter skylar-knight skylar-price skyler-dupree smokie-flame smoking-mary-jane solange-shannon sonya-summers sophia-santi sophie-call sophie-duflot sophie-evans sophie-guers stacey-donovan stacy-lords stacy-moran stacy-nichols stacy-silver stacy-thorn starla-fox starr-wood stefania-bruni stella-virgin stephanie-duvalle stephanie-rage stephanie-renee stevie-taylor summer-knight summer-rose sunny-day sunset-thomas sunshine-seiber susan-hart susanne-brend susan-nero susi-hotkiss suzanne-mcbain suzan-nielsen suzie-bartlett suzie-carina suzi-sparks sweet-nice sweety-pie sybille-rossani sylvia-benedict sylvia-bourdon sylvia-brand sylvia-engelmann syreeta-taylor syren-de-mer syvette szabina-black szilvia-lauren tai-ellis taija-rae taisa-banx talia-james tamara-lee tamara-longley tamara-n-joy tamara-west tami-white tammy tammy-lee tammy-reynolds tania-lorenzo tantala-ray tanya-danielle tanya-fox tanya-foxx tanya-lawson tanya-valis tara-aire tasha-voux tatjana-belousova tatjana-skomorokhova tawnee-lee tawny-pearl tayla-rox taylor-wane teddi-austin teddi-barrett tera-bond tera-heart tera-joy teresa-may teresa-orlowski teri-diver teri-weigel terri-dolan terri-hall tess-ferre tess-newheart thais-vieira tia-cherry tianna tiara tiffany-blake tiffany-clark tiffany-duponte tiffany-rayne tiffany-rousso tiffany-storm tiffany-towers tiffany-tyler tiger-lily tigr timea-vagvoelgyi tina-blair tina-burner tina-evil tina-gabriel tina-loren tina-marie tina-russell tish-ambrose tommi-rose tonisha-mills topsy-curvey tori-secrets tori-sinclair tori-welles tracey-adams traci-lords traci-topps traci-winn tracy-duzit tracy-love tracy-williams tricia-devereaux tricia-yen trinity-loren trisha-rey trista-post trixie-tyler ultramax ursula-gaussmann ursula-moore uschi-karnat valentina valerie-leveau valery-hilton vanessa-chase vanessa-del-rio vanessa-michaels vanessa-ozdanic vanilla-deville velvet-summers veri-knotty veronica-dol veronica-hart veronica-hill veronica-rayne veronica-sage veronika-vanoza via-paxton vicky-lindsay vicky-vicci victoria-evans victoria-gold victoria-knight victoria-luna victoria-paris victoria-slick victoria-zdrok viper virginie-caprice vivian-valentine vivien-martines wendi-white wendy-divine whitney-banks whitney-fears whitney-wonders wonder-tracey wow-nikki xanthia-berstein yasmine-fitzgerald yelena-shieffer yvonne-green zara-whites zsanett-egerhazi zuzie-boobies

to ignore its provisions Article binds the Emperor to exercise his powers "according to the provisions of the present Constitution" Article declares that the Emperor commands the army and navy The heads of these services interpreted this to mean “The army and navy obey only the Emperor and do not have to obey the cabinet and diet” which caused political controversy Article however confirmed that the Emperor’s commands including Imperial Ordinance Edicts Rescripts etc had no legal force within themselves but required the signature of a “Minister of State” On the other hand these “Ministers of State” were appointed by and could be dismissed by the Emperor alone and not by the Prime Minister or the Diet Rights and duties of subjects edit Duties The constitution asserts the duty of Japanese subjects to uphold the constitution preamble pay taxes Article and serve in the armed forces if conscripted Article Qualified rights The constitution provides for a number of rights that subjects may enjoy where the law does not provide otherwise These included the right to Freedom of movement Article Not have one's house searched or entered Article Privacy of correspondence Article Private property Article Freedom of speech assembly and association Article Less conditional rights Right to "be appointed to civil or military or any other public offices equally" Article 'Procedural' due process Article Right to trial before a judge Article Freedom of religion Guaranteed by Article "within limits not prejudicial to peace and order and not antagonistic to their duties as subjects" Right to petition government Article Organs of government edit Main article Government of Meiji Japan Memorial in Yokohama The Emperor of Japan had the right to exercise executive authority and to appoint and dismiss all government officials The Emperor also had the sole rights to declare war make peace conclude treaties dissolve the lower house of Diet and issue Imperial ordinances in place of laws when the Diet was not in session Most importantly command over the Imperial Japanese Army and Imperial Japanese Navy was directly held by the Emperor and not the Diet The Meiji Constitution provided for a cabinet consisting of Ministers of State who answered to the Emperor rather than the Diet and to the establishment of the Privy Council Not mentioned in the Constitution were the genro an inner circle of advisors to the Emperor who wielded considerable influence Under the Meiji Constitution a legislature was established with two Houses The Upper House or House of Peers consisted of members of the Imperial Family hereditary peerage and members appointed by the Emperor The Lower House or House of Representatives was elected by direct male suffrage with qualifications based on amount of tax paid – these qualifications were loosened in and with universal adult male suffrage introduced in Legislative authority was shared with the Diet and both the Emperor and the Diet had to agree in order for a measure to become law On the other hand the Diet was given the authority to initiate legislation approve all laws and approve the budget Amendments edit Amendments to the constitution were provided for by Article This stipulated that to become law a proposed amendment had to be submitted first to the Diet by the Emperor through an imperial order or rescript To be approved by the Diet an amendment had to be adopted in both chambers by a two thirds majority of the total number of members of each rather than merely two thirds of the total number of votes cast Once it had been approved by the Diet an amendment was then promulgated into law by the Emperor who had an absolute right of veto No amendment to the constitution was permitted during the time of a regency Despite these provisions no amendments were made to the imperial constitution from the time it was adopted until its demise in When the Meiji Constitution was replaced in order to ensure legal continuity its successor was adopted in the form of a constitutional amendment However according to Article of the Meiji Constitution the amendment should be authorized by the Emperor Indeed the Constitution was authorized by the Emperor as was declared in the letter of promulgation which is in apparent conflict of the Constitution according to which that constitution was made and authorized by the nation "the principle of popular sovereignty" To dissipate such inconsistencies some peculiar doctrine of "August Revolution" was proposed by Toshiyoshi Miyazawa of the University of Tokyo but without much persuasiveness Crest of the Prime Minister Official office and residence edit Kantei the Office of the Prime Minister Located near the Diet building the Office of the Prime Minister of Japan is called the Kantei ?? The original Kantei served from until when a new building was inaugurated to serve as the current Kantei The old Kantei was then converted into the Official Residence or Kotei ?? The Kotei lies to the southwest of the Kantei and is linked by a walkway Honours and emoluments edit Until the mid s the Prime Minister of Japan was normally granted a hereditary peerage kazoku prior to leaving office if he had not already been ennobled Titles were usually bestowed in the ranks of count viscount or baron depending on the relative accomplishments and status of the Prime Minister The two highest ranks marquess and prince were only bestowed upon highly distinguished statesmen and were not granted to a Prime Minister after The last Prime Minister who was a peer was Baron Kijuro Shidehara who served as Prime Minister from October to May The peerage was abolished when the Constitution of Japan came into effect in May Certain eminent Prime Ministers have been awarded the Order of the Chrysanthemum typically in the degree of Grand Cordon The highest honour in the Japanese honours system the Collar of the Order of the Chrysanthemum has only been conferred upon select Prime Ministers and eminent statesmen the last such award to a living Prime Minister was to Saionji Kinmochi in More often the Order of the Chrysanthemum has been a posthumous distinction the Collar of the order was last awarded posthumously to former Prime Minister Sato Eisaku in June The Grand Cordon has typically been posthumously awarded the most recent such award was to Hashimoto Ryutaro in July Currently Nakasone Yasuhiro is the only living former Prime Minister to hold the Grand Cordon of the Order of the Chrysanthemum which he received in After relinquishing office the Prime Minister is normally accorded the second or senior third rank in the court order of precedence and is usually raised to the senior second rank posthumously Certain distinguished Prime Ministers have been posthumously raised to the first rank the last such award was to Sato Eisaku in Since the s following their tenure in office Prime Ministers have typically been conferred with the Grand Cordon of the Order of the Paulownia Flowers until a special higher class of the Order of the Rising Sun depending on tenure and eminence However honours may be withheld due to misconduct or refusal on the part of the Prime Minister for example Kiichi Miyazawa List of living former Prime Ministers edit Name Term of office Dates of birth Yasuhiro Nakasone – May age Toshiki Kaifu – January age Morihiro Hosokawa – January age Tsutomu Hata August age Tomiichi Murayama – March age Yoshiro Mori – July age Junichiro Koizumi – January age Yasuo Fukuda – July age Taro Aso – September age Yukio Hatoyama – February age Naoto Kan – October age Yoshihiko Noda – May age This section does not cite any references sources Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed February The first Western style supreme court in Japan was the Supreme Court of Judicature ??? Dai shin'in organized by the Ministry of Justice in This court was composed of judges in both civil and criminal divisions Five judges would be empaneled for any given case The criminal division of the court was the court of first instance for crimes against the Emperor e g lèse majesté and for high crimes against public order The statute creating the Court was abolished in and the modern Supreme Court was formed that year under the constitution of The new court was first convened in May in the former Privy Council quarters of the Tokyo Imperial Palace It moved to the Tokyo District Court building in September then assumed the former quarters of the Supreme Court of Judicature in October In the Supreme Court moved to its current five story building at Hayabusa cho Chiyoda Tokyo The building was designed by architect Shinichi Okada and won the Architecture Institute of Japan Prize for Design Appointment and organization edit Façade of the Supreme Court building The Grand Bench The constitution's Article designates it "the court of last resort with power to determine the constitutionality of any law order regulation or official act " The Supreme Court is also responsible for nominating judges to lower courts determining judicial procedures overseeing the judicial system including the activities of public prosecutors and disciplining judges and other judicial personnel It renders decisions from either a grand bench of fifteen justices or a petit bench of five The grand bench is required for cases involving constitutionality The court includes research clerks whose function is similar to that of the clerks of the United States Supreme Court The Chief Justice is nominated by the Cabinet and appointed to office by the Emperor The associate justices are appointed by the Cabinet in attestation of the Emperor After appointment Supreme Court justices are subject to a "people's review" an automatic retention referendum in which the voters may remove the judge from office A people's review occurs at the first election to the House of Representatives after a justice assumes office when the question of whether his tenure should continue is put to voters on the ballot The Supreme Court justice is then subject to a further people's review at the first lower house election after every ten years The system used resembles the Missouri Plan followed in some U S states It is established by Article of the constitution which includes the following provisions The appointment of the judges of the Supreme Court shall be reviewed by the people at the first general election of members of the House of Representatives following their appointment and shall be reviewed again at the first general election of members of the House of Representatives after a lapse of ten years and in the same manner thereafter In cases mentioned in the foregoing paragraph when the majority of the voters favors the dismissal of a judge he shall be dismissed As of October no Supreme Court justice has ever been dismissed by a people's review It is also unusual for a justice to be subject to a second review as most are over the age of sixty when appointed and there is mandatory retirement at seventy Judicial review of laws edit The Supreme Court is the only Japanese court explicitly empowered to review the constitutionality of laws although it has held that lower courts also have power to interpret the constitution Unlike constitutional courts in other civil law countries it only exercises judicial review in cases where there is a genuine dispute between parties and does not accept questions of constitutionality from government officials The Supreme Court is generally reluctant to exercise the powers of judicial review given to it by the constitution in large part because of unwillingness to become involved in politically sensitive issues When decisions have been rendered on such matters as the constitutionality of the Self Defense Forces the sponsorship of Shinto ceremonies by public authorities or the authority of the Ministry of Education to determine the content of school textbooks or teaching curricula the Court has generally deferred to the government One important exception to this trend was a series of rulings on the unconstitutionality of the electoral district apportionment system Although the Court ruled in that legislative districting was largely a matter of legislative policy it ruled in the case of Kurokawa v Chiba Prefecture Election Control Commission that a discrepancy in the voter to representative ratio between two districts was an unconstitutional violation of the right to an equal vote Nonetheless the Diet has repeatedly failed to keep malapportionment within the limits set forth in Kurokawa Aside from electoral matters provisions declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court have included rules Punishing patricide more harshly than other homicides Restricting pharmacies from doing business close to one another Limiting the liability of the postal service for the loss of registered mail Restricting subdivision of property by joint owners of forest land Restricting the right of citizenship of certain illegitimate children Bar law Bench metonymy Bench trial Bencher Court Courtroom En banc See also References Further reading External links History edit After the French Revolution lawmakers stopped interpretation of law by judges and the legislature was the only body permitted to interpret the law this prohibition was later overturned by the Code Napoléon In civil law jurisdictions at present judges interpret the law to about the same extent as in common law jurisdictions citation needed – however it is different from the common law tradition which directly recognizes the limited power to make law For instance in France the jurisprudence constante of the Court of Cassation or the Council of State is equivalent in practice with case law However the Louisiana Supreme Court notes the principal difference between the two legal doctrines a single court decision can provide sufficient foundation for the common law doctrine of stare decisis however "a series of adjudicated cases all in accord form the basis for jurisprudence constante " Moreover the Louisiana Court of Appeals has explicitly noted that jurisprudence constante is merely a secondary source of law which cannot be authoritative and does not rise to the level of stare decisis Various functions edit Part of a series on Politics Ballot box Primary topics show Political systems show Academic disciplines show Public administration show Policy show Organs of government show Related topics show Subseries show Politics portal v t e In common law jurisdictions courts interpret law this includes constitutions statutes and regulations They also make law but in a limited sense limited to the facts of particular cases based upon prior case law in areas where the legislature has not made law For instance the tort of negligence is not derived from statute law in most common law jurisdictions The term common law refers to this kind of law In civil law jurisdictions courts interpret the law but are prohibited from creating law and thus do not issue rulings more general than the actual case to be judged Jurisprudence plays a similar role to case law In the United States court system the Supreme Court is the final authority on the interpretation of the federal Constitution and all statutes and regulations created pursuant to it as well as the constitutionality of the various state laws in the US federal court system federal cases are tried in trial courts known as the US district courts followed by appellate courts and then the Supreme Court State courts which try of litigation may have different names and organization trial courts may be called "courts of common plea" appellate courts "superior courts" or "commonwealth courts" The judicial system whether state or federal begins with a court of first instance is appealed to an appellate court and then ends at the court of last resort In France the final authority on the interpretation of the law is the Council of State for administrative cases and the Court of Cassation for civil and criminal cases In the People's Republic of China the final authority on the interpretation of the law is the National People's Congress Other countries such as Argentina have mixed systems that include lower courts appeals courts a cassation court for criminal law and a Supreme Court In this system the Supreme Court is always the final authority but criminal cases have four stages one more than civil law does On the court sits a total of nine justices This number has been changed several times Judicial systems edit Japan's process for selecting Judges is longer and more stringent than the process in the United States and in Mexico Assistant judges are appointed from those who have completed their training at the "Legal Training and Research Institute" located in Wako City Once appointed assistant judges still may not qualify to sit alone until they have served for five years and have been appointed by the Supreme Court Judges require ten years of experience in practical affairs public prosecutor or practicing attorney In the Japanese Judicial Branch there is the Supreme Court located in Japan eight high courts fifty district courts fifty family courts and summary courts In difference Mexican Supreme Court Justices are appointed by the president and then are approved by the Senate to serve for a life term Other justices are appointed by the Supreme Court and serve for six years Federal courts consist of the Supreme Court with magistrates circuit tribunals and district courts The Supreme Court of Mexico is located in "Mexico City Supreme Court Judges must be of ages to and hold a law degree during the five years preceding their nomination In the United States Supreme Court justices are appointed by the president and approved by the Senate As in Mexico justices serve for a life term or until retirement The Supreme Court of the United States is located in "Washington D C" The Federal court system consists of federal judicial districts The districts are then divided into twelve regional circuits The United States consist of five different types of courts that are considered subordinate to the Supreme Court U S bankruptcy courts U S Courts of Appeal for the federal circuit U S Court of International Trade U S Courts of Appeal and U S District Courts Notes References External links Definition edit The expression "law reform" is used in a number of senses and some of these are close to being wholly incompatible with each other In the Law Reform Commission Act the expression "reform" includes in relation to the law or a branch of the law its development its codification including in particular its simplification and modernisation and the revision and consolidation of statute law and kindred words must be construed accordingly Correlation with judicial reform edit Judicial reform is the complete or partial political reform of a country's judiciary Judicial reform is often done as a part of wider reform of the country's political system or a legal reform The President of the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation Valery Zorkin gives in his article "Twelve Theses on Legal Reform in Russia" first published in Russian magazine «Legislation and Economics» N an explained correlation between legal and judicial reform "Complete legal reform should normally include not only judicial reform but also reform of various aspects of the structural system and content of legislation legal education legal awareness by the population and also the corporate consciousness of the whole legal community Judicial reform usually aims to improve such things as law courts procuracies advocacy bar inquest executory processes and record keeping " Relation with economics edit Legal reform can be the «driver» for all other reforms including reform of the economy A true market economy cannot be created without ensuring both full guarantees of private property and transparent predictability for entrepreneurial activity on the one hand and sufficiently reasonable legal control over economic processes on the other hand Legal reform should be an integral part of any on going reform process Legal reform is a tool for implementing necessary reforms to balance competing interests create a dynamic and sustainable economy and build a sustainable civil society During last decades the judiciary became active in economic issues related with economic rights established by constitution because "economics may provide insight into questions that bear on the proper legal interpretation" Since many a country with a transitional political and economic system continues treating its constitution as an abstract legal document disengaged from the economic policy of the state practice of judicial review of economic acts of executive and legislative branches became to grow The budget of the judiciary in many transitional and developing countries is completely controlled by the executive The latter undermines the separation of powers as it creates a critical financial dependence of the judiciary The proper national wealth distribution including the government spending on the judiciary is subject of the constitutional economics It is important to distinguish between the two methods of corruption of the judiciary the state through budget planning and various privileges and the private Russian example edit In modern Russia aspects and directions of development of judicial reform were formulated in the «Judicial Reform Concept» enacted by the Russian Parliament on October This document still remains legally valid and applicable Valery Zorkin stressed that "the «separation of powers» principle also proclaimed in the Constitution of the Russian Federation requires observance of judicial independence And such independence requires proper funding of the courts and their activities It is well known that Russian courts remain under funded However the cumulative economic costs suffered by both state and private enterprises as the result of under performance by various judicial institutions especially by the courts of general jurisdiction and the arbitration courts is at least twice the order of magnitude as the financial burden carried by the state and society in financing such judicial institutions The elimination of under funding of the courts would definitely improve the efficiency of their work and be worthwhile Nationalism is a shared group feeling in the significance of a geographical and sometimes demographic region seeking independence for its culture and or ethnicity that holds that group together This can be expressed as a belief or political ideology that involves an individual identifying with or becoming attached to one's nation Nationalism involves national identity by contrast with the related concept of patriotism which involves the social conditioning and personal behaviors that support a state's decisions and actions From a political or sociological perspective there are two main perspectives on the origins and basis of nationalism One is the primordialist perspective that describes nationalism as a reflection of the ancient and perceived evolutionary tendency of humans to organize into distinct groupings based on an affinity of birth The other is the modernist perspective that describes nationalism as a recent phenomenon that requires the structural conditions of modern society in order to exist An alternative perspective to both of these lineages comes out of Engaged theory and argues that while the form of nationalism is modern the content and subjective reach of nationalism depends upon 'primordial' sentiments There are various definitions for what constitutes a nation however which leads to several different strands of nationalism It can be a belief that citizenship in a state should be limited to one ethnic cultural religious or identity group or that multinationality in a single state should necessarily comprise the right to express and exercise national identity even by minorities The adoption of national identity in terms of historical development has commonly been the result of a response by influential groups unsatisfied with traditional identities due to inconsistency between their defined social order and the experience of that social order by its members resulting in a situation of anomie that nationalists seek to resolve This anomie results in a society or societies reinterpreting identity retaining elements that are deemed acceptable and removing elements deemed unacceptable in order to create a unified community This development may be the result of internal structural issues or the result of resentment by an existing group or groups towards other communities especially foreign powers that are or are deemed to be controlling them National flags national anthems and other symbols of national identity are commonly considered highly important symbols of the national community Contents hide History Causes Primordialist interpretation Modernist interpretation Varieties Risorgimento and Integral nationalism Civic nationalism Ethnic nationalism National purity Left wing nationalism Territorial nationalism Pan nationalism Anti colonial nationalism Criticisms See also Notes References Further reading External links History edit White saltire clearly visible over white bordered red cross on blue background The growth of a national identity was expressed in a variety of symbolic ways including the adoption of a national flag Pictured a Scottish Union Flag in the edition of The Present State of the Universe With the emergence of a national public sphere and an integrated country wide economy in th century England English people began to identify with the country at large rather than the smaller units of their family town or province The early emergence of a popular patriotic nationalism took place in the mid th century and was actively promoted by the British government and by the writers and intellectuals of the time National symbols anthems myths flags and narratives were assiduously constructed by whom and adopted The Union Flag was adopted when as a national one Thomas Arne composed the patriotic song "Rule Britannia " in and the cartoonist John Arbuthnot invented the character of John Bull as the personification of the English national spirit in The political convulsions of the late th century associated with the American and French Revolutions massively augmented the widespread appeal of patriotic nationalism Ultra nationalist parties sprung up in France during the French Revolution need quotation to verify The Prussian born Johann Gottfried Herder the prophet of a form of this new creed originated when the term nationalism citation needed Herder gave Germans new pride in their origins and proclaimed a national message within the sphere of language which he believed determines national thought and culture He attached exceptional importance to the concepts of nationality and of patriotism – "he that has lost his patriotic spirit has lost himself and the whole worlds about himself" whilst teaching that "in a certain sense every human perfection is national" The political development of nationalism and the push for popular sovereignty Adolfas Vecerskis – theatre and film actor director of theatre Arunas Žebriunas – lt Arunas Žebriunas one of the most prominent film directors during the Soviet rule Vytautas Šapranauskas – lt Vytautas Šapranauskas theater and film actor television presenter humorist Žilvinas Tratas actor and model Džiugas Siaurusaitis lt Džiugas Siaurusaitis actor television presenter humorist Sakalas Uždavinys lt Sakalas Uždavinys theater and film actor director Marius Jampolskis actor and TV host Ballet and Dance edit Egle Špokaite soloist of Lithuanian National Opera and Ballet Theatre – Actress art director Edita Daniute Professional Ballroom Dancer and World DanceSport Champion Iveta Lukosiute Professional Ballroom Dancer and World Dance Champion Music edit Soprano vocalist Violeta Urmanaviciute Urmana Pop singer Violeta RiaubiškyteSee also List of Lithuanian singers Linas Adomaitis – pop singer participant in the Eurovision Song Contest Ilja Aksionovas lt Ilja Aksionovas pop and opera singer boy soprano Osvaldas Balakauskas – ambassador and classical composer Alanas Chošnau – singer member of former music group Naktines Personos Egidijus Dragunas – lt Egidijus Dragunas leader of Sel one of the first hip hop bands in Lithuania Justas Dvarionas – lt Justas Dvarionas pianist educator Mikalojus Konstantinas Ciurlionis – painter and composer Balys Dvarionas – composer conductor pianist professor Gintare Jautakaite pop artist signed with EMI and Sony Music Entertainment in Gintaras Januševicius internationally acclaimed pianist Algirdas Kaušpedas architect and lead singer of Antis Nomeda Kazlauskaite Kazlaus opera singer dramatic soprano appearing internationally Vytautas Kernagis – one of the most popular bards Algis Kizys – long time bass player of post punk no wave band Swans Andrius Mamontovas – rock singer co founder of Foje and LT United Marijonas Mikutavicius – singer author of Trys Milijonai the unofficial sports anthem in Lithuania Vincas Niekus – lt Vincas Niekus composer Virgilijus Noreika – one of the most successful opera singers tenor Mykolas Kleopas Oginskis – one of the best composer of the late th century Kipras Petrauskas – lt Kipras Petrauskas popular early opera singer tenor Stasys Povilaitis – one of the popular singers during the Soviet period Violeta Riaubiškyte – pop singer TV show host Mindaugas Rojus opera singer tenor baritone Ceslovas Sasnauskas – composer Rasa Serra – lt Rasa Serra real name Rasa Veretenceviene singer Traditional folk A cappella jazz POP Audrone Simonaityte Gaižiuniene – lt Audrone Gaižiuniene Simonaityte one of the more popular female opera singers soprano Virgis Stakenas – lt Virgis Stakenas singer of country folk music Antanas Šabaniauskas – lt Antanas Šabaniauskas singer tenor Jurga Šeduikyte – art rock musician won the Best Female Act and the Best Album of in the Lithuanian Bravo Awards and the Best Baltic Act at the MTV Europe Music Awards Jonas Švedas – composer Michael Tchaban composer singer and songwriter Violeta Urmanaviciute Urmana opera singer soprano mezzosoprano appearing internationally Painters and graphic artists edit See also List of Lithuanian artists Robertas Antinis – sculptor Vytautas Ciplijauskas lt Vytautas Ciplijauskas painter Jonas Ceponis – lt Jonas Ceponis painter Mikalojus Konstantinas Ciurlionis – painter and composer Asteroid Ciurlionis is named for him Kostas Dereškevicius lt Kostas Dereškevicius painter Vladimiras Dubeneckis painter architect Stasys Eidrigevicius graphic artist Pranas Gailius lt Pranas Gailius painter Paulius Galaune Petronele Gerlikiene – self taught Lithuanian American artist Algirdas Griškevicius lt Algirdas Griškevicius Vincas Grybas – sculptor Leonardas Gutauskas lt Leonardas Gutauskas painter writer Vytautas Kairiukštis – lt Vytautas Kairiukštis painter art critic Vytautas Kasiulis – lt Vytautas Kasiulis painter graphic artist stage designer Petras Kalpokas painter Rimtas Kalpokas – lt Rimtas Kalpokas painter graphic artist Leonas Katinas – lt Leonas Katinas painter Povilas Kaupas – lt Povilas Kaupas Algimantas Kezys Lithuanian American photographer Vincas Kisarauskas – lt Vincas Kisarauskas painter graphic artist stage designer Saulute Stanislava Kisarauskiene – lt Saulute Stanislava Kisarauskiene graphic artist painter Stasys Krasauskas – lt Stasys Krasauskas graphic artist Stanislovas Kuzma – lt Stanislovas Kuzma sculptor Antanas Martinaitis – lt Antanas Martinaitis painter Jonas Rimša – lt Jonas Rimša painter Jan Rustem painter Antanas Samuolis – lt Antanas Samuolis painter Šarunas Sauka painter Boris Schatz – sculptor and founder of the Bezalel Academy Irena Sibley née Pauliukonis – Children s book author and illustrator Algis Skackauskas – painter Antanas Žmuidzinavicius – painter Franciszek Smuglewicz – painter Yehezkel Streichman Israeli painter Kazys Šimonis – painter Algimantas Švegžda – lt Algimantas Švegžda painter Otis Tamašauskas Lithographer Print Maker Graphic Artist Adolfas Valeška – painter and graphic artist Adomas Varnas – painter Kazys Varnelis – artist Vladas Vildžiunas lt Vladas Vildžiunas sculptor Mikalojus Povilas Vilutis lt Mikalojus Povilas Vilutis graphic artist Viktoras Vizgirda – painter William Zorach – Modern artist who died in Bath Maine Antanas Žmuidzinavicius – painter Kazimieras Leonardas Žoromskis – painter Politics edit President Valdas Adamkus right chatting with Vice President Dick Cheney left See also List of Lithuanian rulers Mindaugas – the first and only King of Lithuania – Gediminas – the ruler of Lithuania – Algirdas – the ruler together with Kestutis of Lithuania – Kestutis – the ruler together with Algirdas of Lithuania – Vytautas – the ruler of Lithuania – together with Jogaila Jogaila – the ruler of Lithuania – from to together with Vytautas the king of Poland – Jonušas Radvila – the field hetman of Grand Duchy of Lithuania – Dalia Grybauskaite – current President of Lithuania since Valdas Adamkus – President of Lithuania till Jonas Basanavicius – "father" of the Act of Independence of Algirdas Brazauskas – the former First secretary of Central Committee of Communist Party of Lithuanian SSR the former president of Lithuania after and former Prime Minister of Lithuania Joe Fine – mayor of Marquette Michigan – Kazys Grinius – politician third President of Lithuania Mykolas Krupavicius – priest behind the land reform in interwar Lithuania Vytautas Landsbergis – politician professor leader of Sajudis the independence movement former speaker of Seimas member of European Parliament Stasys Lozoraitis – diplomat and leader of Lithuanian government in exile – Stasys Lozoraitis junior – politician diplomat succeeded his father as leader of Lithuanian government in exile – Antanas Merkys – the last Prime Minister of interwar Lithuania Rolandas Paksas – former President removed from the office after impeachment Justas Paleckis – journalist and politician puppet Prime Minister after Soviet occupation Kazimiera Prunskiene – the first female Prime Minister Mykolas Sleževicius – three times Prime Minister organized

culminated with the ethnic national revolutions of Europe for instance the Greek War of Independence of Since that time nationalism has become one of the most significant political and social forces in history perhaps most notably as a major influence on or postulate of World War I and especially World War II Concepts of nationalism have spread through widespread literacy education and communication technologies Benedict Anderson argued that "Print language is what invents nationalism not a particular language per se" Causes edit Two major bodies of thought address the causes of nationalism the modernist perspective describes nationalism as a recent phenomenon that requires the structural conditions of modern society in order to exist the primordialist perspective describes nationalism as a reflection of the ancient evolutionary tendency of humans to organize into distinct groupings based on an affinity of birth Roger Masters in The Nature of Politics says that both the primordialist and modernist conceptions of nationalism involve an acceptance of three levels of common interest of individuals or groups in national identity at an inter group level humans respond to competition or conflict by organizing into groups to either attack other groups or defend their group from hostile groups at the intragroup level individuals gain advantage through cooperation with others in securing collective goods that are not accessible through individual effort alone on the individual level self interested concerns over personal fitness by individuals either consciously or subconsciously motivate the creation of group formation as a means of security The behaviour of leadership groups or élites that involves efforts to advance their own fitness when they are involved in the mobilization of an ethnic or national group is crucial in the development of the culture of that group Primordialist interpretation edit Beginning in the Greek War of Independence began as a rebellion by Greek nationalists against the ruling Ottoman Empire The primordialist perspective is based upon evolutionary theory The evolutionary theory of nationalism perceives nationalism to be the result of the evolution of human beings into identifying with groups such as ethnic groups or other groups that form the foundation of a nation Roger Masters in The Nature of Politics describes the primordial explanation of the origin of ethnic and national groups as recognizing group attachments that are thought to be unique emotional intense and durable because they are based upon kinship and promoted along lines of common ancestry The primordialist evolutionary view of nationalism has its origins in the evolutionary theories of Charles Darwin that were later substantially elaborated by John Tooby and Leda Cosmides Central to evolutionary theory is that all biological organisms undergo changes in their anatomical features and their characteristic behaviour patterns Darwin's theory of natural selection as a mechanism of evolutionary change of organisms is utilized to describe the development of human societies and particularly the development of mental and physical traits of members of such societies In addition to evolutionary development of mental and physical traits Darwin and other evolutionary theorists emphasize the influence of the types of environment upon behaviour First of all there are ancestral environments that are typically long term and stable forms of situations that influence mental development of individuals or groups gained either biologically through birth or learned from family or relatives which cause the emphasis of certain mental behaviours that are developed due to the requirements of the ancestral environment In national group settings these ancestral environments can result in psychological triggers in the minds of individuals within a group such as responding positively to patriotic cues There are immediate environments that are those situations that confront an individual or group at a given point and activate certain mental responses In the case of a national group the example of seeing the mobilization of a foreign military force on the nation's borders may provoke members of a national group to unify and mobilize themselves in response There are proximate environments where individuals identify nonimmediate real or imagined situations in combination with immediate situations that make individuals confront a common situation of both subjective and objective components that affect their decisions As such proximate environments cause people to make decisions based on existing situations and anticipated situations In the context of the politics of nations and nationalism a political leader may adopt an international treaty not out of a benevolent stance but in the belief that such a treaty will either benefit their nation or will increase the prestige of their nation The proximate environment plays a role in the politics of nations that are angry with their circumstances in much the same way that an individual or group's anger in response to feelings that they are being exploited usually results in efforts to accommodate them while being passive results in them being ignored Nations that are angry with circumstances imposed on them by others are affected by the proximate environment that shapes the nationalism of such nations Nationalist and liberal pressure led to the European revolutions of This is evident in many cases such as the French and American Revolutions The fear of loss of identity traditions and economic disparity lead to the banding together of citizens to achieve what was once theirs Whatever the nation state may have done that it shouldn’t have the citizens of the state still knew that it was theirs or at least that they were its They knew what the state could require of them and they accepted their duties as a condition of the rights that came with them They recognized therefore the principal grounds of rights and duties them selves In short there prevailed a sense of collective interest and purpose that gave substance to individual aspirations as well as to those of the group The loss of this sense is a serious loss in a society such as ours that has found nothing to replace it Pierre van den Berghe in The Ethnic Phenomenon emphasizes the role of ethnicity and kinship involving family biological ties to members of an ethnic group as being an important element of national identity Van den Berghe states the sense of family attachments among related people as creating durable intense emotional and cooperative attachments that he claims are utilized within ethnic groups Van den Berghe identifies genetic relatedness as being a basis for the durable attachments of family groups as genetic ties cannot be removed and they are passed on from generation to generation Van den Berge identifies common descent as the basis for the establishment of boundaries of ethnic groups as most people do not join ethnic groups but are born into them Berghe notes that this kinship group affiliation and solidarity does not require actual relatedness but can include imagined relatedness that may not be biologically accurate Berghe notes that feelings of ethnic solidarity usually arise in small and compact groups whereas there is less solidarity in large and dispersed groups There are functionalist interpretations of the primordialist evolutionary theory The functionalists claim that ethnic and national groups are founded upon individuals' concerns over distribution of resources acquired through individual and collective action This is resolved by the formation of a clan group that defines who is accepted within the group and defines the boundaries within which the resources will be distributed This functionalist interpretation does not require genetic relatedness and identifies a variety of reasons for ethnic or national group formation The first reason is that such groups may extend group identity and cooperation beyond the limits of family and kinship out of reciprocal altruism in the belief that helping other individuals will produce an advantageous situation for both the sender and receiver of that help this tendency has been noted in studies by Robert Axelrod that are summarized in his book The Evolution of Cooperation The second reason is that such groups may be formed as a means of defense to insure survival fears by one group of a hostile group threatening them can increase solidarity amongst that group R Paul Shaw and Yuwa Wong in their book The Genetic Seeds of Warfare identify this as the foundation of xenophobia that they identify as originating in hunter gatherer societies Modernist interpretation edit The modernist interpretation of nationalism and nation building perceives that nationalism arises and flourishes in modern societies described as being associated with having an industrial economy capable of self sustainability of the society a central supreme authority capable of maintaining authority and unity and a centralized language or small group of centralized languages understood by a community of people Modernist theorists note that this is only possible in modern societies while traditional societies typically lack a modern industrial self sustainable economy have divided authorities have multiple languages resulting in many people being unable to communicate with each other Karl Marx wrote about the creation of nations as requiring a bourgeois revolution and an industrial economy Marx applied the modern versus traditional parallel to British colonial rule in India that Marx saw in positive terms as he claimed that British colonial rule was developing India bringing India out of the "rural idiocy" of its "feudalism" However Marx's theories at the time of his writing had little impact on academic thinking on the development of nation states Prominent theorists who developed the modernist interpretation of nations and nationalism include Carlton Joseph Huntley Hayes Henry Maine Ferdinand Tönnies Rabindranath Tagore Émile Durkheim Max Weber Arnold Joseph Toynbee and Talcott Parsons Euromaidan activists carry flags of the Ukrainian Insurgent Army Ukraine Henry Maine in his analysis of the historical changes and development of human societies noted the key distinction between traditional societies defined as "status" societies based on family association and functionally diffuse roles for individuals and modern societies defined as "contract" societies where social relations are determined by rational contracts pursued by individuals to advance their interests Maine saw the development of societies as moving away from traditional status societies to modern contract societies Ferdinand Tönnies in his book Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft defined a gemeinschaft community as being based on emotional attachments as attributed with traditional societies while defining a Gesellschaft society as an impersonal society that is modern While he recognized the advantages of modern societies he also criticized them for their cold and impersonal nature that caused alienation while praising the intimacy of traditional communities Émile Durkheim expanded upon Tönnies' recognition of alienation and defined the differences between traditional and modern societies as being between societies based upon "mechanical solidarity" versus societies based on "organic solidarity" Durkheim identified mechanical solidarity as involving custom habit and repression that was necessary to maintain shared views Durkheim identified organic solidarity based societies as modern societies where there exists a division of labour based on social differentiation that causes alienation Durkheim claimed that social integration in traditional society required authoritarian culture involving acceptance of a social order Durkheim claimed that modern society bases integration on the mutual benefits of the division of labour but noted that the impersonal character of modern urban life caused alienation and feelings of anomie Max Weber claimed the change that developed modern society and nations is the result of the rise of a charismatic leader to power in a society who creates a new tradition or a rational legal system that establishes the supreme authority of the state Weber's conception of charismatic authority has been noted as the basis of many nationalist governments Varieties edit Risorgimento and Integral nationalism edit See also Risorgimento National independence Integral nationalism and Fascism Italia und Germania painted by Johann Friedrich Overbeck before Italian and German Unification The Duce Benito Mussolini and the Führer Adolf Hitler There are different types of nationalism including Risorgimento nationalism and Integral nationalism Whereas risorgimento nationalism applies to a nation seeking to establish a liberal state for example the Risorgimento in Italy and similar movements in Greece Germany Poland during the th century or the civic American nationalism integral nationalism results after a nation has achieved independence and has established a state Mussolini's Italy and Nazi Germany according to Alter and Brown were examples of integral nationalism Some of the qualities that characterise integral nationalism are anti individualism statism plans by the few ideology radical extremism and aggressive expansionist militarism The term Integral Nationalism often overlaps with fascism although many natural points of disagreement exist Integral nationalism arises in countries where a strong military ethos has become entrenched through the independence struggle when once independence is achieved it is believed that a strong military is required to ensure the security and viability of the new state Also the success of such a liberation struggle results in feelings of national superiority that may lead to extreme nationalism Civic nationalism edit Main article Civic nationalism Liberty Leading the People Eugène Delacroix is a famous example of nationalist art Civic nationalism also known as liberal nationalism defines the nation as an association of people who identify themselves as belonging to the nation who have equal and shared political rights and allegiance to similar political procedures According to the principles of civic nationalism the nation is not based on common ethnic ancestry but is a political entity whose core identity is not ethnicity This civic concept of nationalism is exemplified by Ernest Renan in his lecture in "What is a Nation " where he defined the nation as a "daily referendum" frequently translated "daily plebiscite" dependent on the will of its people to continue living together Civic nationalism is a kind of non xenophobic nationalism that is claimed to be compatible with liberal values of freedom tolerance equality and individual rights Ernest Renan and John Stuart Mill are often thought to be early liberal nationalists Liberal nationalists often defend the value of national identity by saying that individuals need a national identity in order to lead meaningful autonomous lives and that liberal democratic polities need national identity in order to function properly Civic nationalism lies within the traditions of rationalism and liberalism but as a form of nationalism it is contrasted with ethnic nationalism Membership of the civic nation is considered voluntary as in Ernest Renan's "daily referendum" formulation in What is a Nation Civic national ideals influenced the development of representative democracy in countries such as the United States and France see the United States Declaration of Independence of and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen of Some authors deconstruct the distinction between ethnic nationalism and civic nationalism because of the ambiguity of the concepts They argue that the paradigmatic case of Ernest Renan is an idealisation and it should be interpreted within the German tradition and not in opposition to it For example they argue that the arguments used by Renan at the conference What is a nation are not consistent with his thinking This In December 2005, Paramount Pictures agreed to purchase the live-action studio, still keeping the original name and producing/distribution name. The deal was valued at approximately $1.6 billion, an amount that included about $400 million in debt assumptions.[17] The company completed its acquisition on February 1, 2006.[18] On March 17, 2006, Paramount agreed to sell a controlling interest in the DreamWorks Pictures live-action library (pre-September 16, 2005; DW Funding, LLC) to Soros Strategic Partners and Dune Entertainment II.[19] The film library is valued at $900 million. Paramount retained the worldwide distribution rights to these films, as well as various ancillary rights, including music publishing, sequels and merchandising. This includes films that had been made by Paramount and DreamWorks Pictures (the music publishing rights were later licensed to Sony-ATV Music Publishing when that company acquired Paramount's Famous Music subdivision). The sale was completed on May 8, 2006.[20] On February 8, 2010, Viacom repurchased Soros' controlling stake in the DreamWorks Pictures library for around $400 million.[21] Reliance-Spielberg joint venture[edit] 20th Century Fox From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article is about the film studio. For other uses, see 20th Century Fox (disambiguation). Twentieth Century Fox Film Corporation 20th century fox (2009).jpg Logo used as of 2013 Type Subsidiary of Fox Entertainment Group Industry Film Founded May 31, 1935; 80 years ago,[1] by merger Founder Joseph M. Schenck Darryl F. Zanuck Headquarters Fox Plaza, Century City, Los Angeles, California, U.S. Key people Jim Gianopulos (Chairman and CEO) Stacey Snider (Co-Chairman) Products Motion pictures, television films Owner Independent (1935–1985) News Corporation (1985–2013) 21st Century Fox (2013–present) Parent Fox Entertainment Group Divisions 20th Television 20th Century Fox Animation Fox Searchlight Pictures Fox Digital Studio Fox 2000 Pictures Fox Animation Studios Fox Atomic Fox Digital Entertainment Subsidiaries Blue Sky Studios Fox Star Studios (India) 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment Fox Television Studios 20th Century Fox Television 20th Century Fox Japan Fox Studios Australia TSG Entertainment Website www.foxmovies.com Entrance to 20th Century Fox studio lot. Twentieth Century Fox Film Corporation (formerly known as Twentieth Century-Fox Film Corporation with hyphen used from its inception until 1985), also known as 20th Century Fox, 20th Century Fox Pictures, 20CFFC, TCF, Fox 2000 Pictures or simply Fox is an American film studio, distributor and one of the six major American film studios. Located in the Century City area of Los Angeles, just west of Beverly Hills, the studio used to be owned by News Corporation, but is now owned by 21st Century Fox. 20th Century Fox has distributed famous film series, including the first two Star Wars trilogies, Ice Age, Diary of a Wimpy Kid, Maze Runner, X-Men, Die Hard, Home Alone, Planet of the Apes, Independence Day, Night at the Museum, Power Rangers, Percy Jackson, Taken, Fantastic Four, The Omen, Alien, Predator, Rio, and Alvin and the Chipmunks. The studio is also credited for distributing Avatar and Titanic, the highest and second highest grossing films respectively at the box-office not adjusted for inflation. Television series produced by Fox include The Simpsons, Family Guy, M*A*S*H, The X-Files, Bob's Burgers, Bones, Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Futurama, American Dad!, How I Met Your Mother, Archer, Glee, Modern Family, Empire, Malcolm in the Middle, New Girl, King of the Hill, and 24. Among the most famous actresses to come out of this studio were Shirley Temple, who was 20th Century Fox's first film star, Alice Faye, Betty Grable, Gene Tierney, Marilyn Monroe and Jayne Mansfield. The studio also contracted the first African-American cinema star, Dorothy Dandridge. 20th Century Fox is a member of the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA).[2] In 2015, 20th Century Fox celebrated their 80th anniversary as a studio. Contents 1 History 1.1 Creation 1.2 Production and financial problems 1.3 Marvin Davis and Rupert Murdoch 2 Television 3 Music 4 Radio 5 Motion Picture Film Processing 6 Logo and fanfare 7 Highest-grossing films 8 Production deals 9 Films 10 See also 11 References 12 Additional sources 13 External links History[edit] Creation[edit] See also: Fox Film and Twentieth Century Pictures This section does not cite any references (sources). Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2014) Carmen Miranda in The Gang's All Here. In 1946, she was the highest-paid actress in the United States.[3] Alice Faye, Don Ameche, and Carmen Miranda in That Night in Rio, produced by Fox in 1941. From the 1952 film Viva Zapata! Twentieth Century Pictures' Joseph Schenck and Darryl F. Zanuck left United Artists over a stock dispute, and began merger talks with the management of financially struggling Fox Film, under president Sidney Kent. Spyros Skouras, then manager of the Fox West Coast Theaters, helped make it happen (and later became president of the new company). Aside from the theater chain and a first-rate studio lot, Zanuck and Schenck felt there was not much else to Fox, which had been reeling since founder William Fox lost control of the company in 1930. The studio's biggest star, Will Rogers, died in a plane crash weeks after the merger. Its leading female star, Janet Gaynor, was fading in popularity and promising leading men James Dunn and Spencer Tracy had been dropped because of heavy drinking. At first, it was expected that the new company was originally to be called "Fox-20th Century", even though 20th Century was the senior partner in the merger. However, 20th Century brought more to the bargaining table besides Schenck and Zanuck; it was more profitable than Fox and had considerably more talent. The new company, 20th Century-Fox Film Corporation, began trading on May 31, 1935; the hyphen was dropped in 1985. Schenck became Chairman and Chief Executive Officer, while Kent remained as President. Zanuck became Vice President in Charge of Production, replacing Fox's longtime production chief Winfield Sheehan. For many years, 20th Century Fox claimed to have been founded in 1915, the year Fox Film was founded. For instance, it marked 1945 as its 30th anniversary. However, in recent years it has claimed the 1935 merger as its founding, even though most film historians agree it was founded in 1915.[4] The company's films retained the 20th Century Pictures searchlight logo on their opening credits as well as its opening fanfare, but with the name changed to 20th Century-Fox. After the merger was completed, Zanuck quickly signed young actors who would carry Twentieth Century-Fox for years:[citation needed] Tyrone Power, Linda Darnell, Carmen Miranda, Don Ameche, Henry Fonda, Gene Tierney, Sonja Henie, and Betty 1.12 Football (Association; Soccer) 1.13 Football (Australian Rules) 1.14 Golf 1.15 Gymnastics 1.16 Ice hockey 1.17 Judo 1.18 Kickboxing 1.19 Mixed martial arts 1.20 Motorsport 1.21 Rowing 1.22 Rugby league 1.23 Rugby union 1.24 Sailing 1.25 Shooting 1.26 Skiing 1.27 Speed skating 1.28 Swimming 1.29 Table tennis 1.30 Tennis 1.31 Track and field 1.32 Triathlon 1.33 Volleyball 1.34 Water polo 1.35 Weightlifting 1.36 Wrestling 1.37 Professional wrestling 2 Commissioners, managers/coaches and owners 3 Officials and referees 4 Jewish sports halls of fame 5 See also 6 References 6.1 Notes 6.2 Bibliography 6.2.1 General works 6.2.2 Baseball 6.2.3 Boxing 6.2.4 Chess 6.2.5 Olympics Athletes[edit] Baseball[edit] Ryan Braun, outfielder (Milwaukee Brewers) Ike Davis, first baseman (Oakland Athletics) Ian Kinsler, second baseman (Detroit Tigers) Ryan Lavarnway, catcher (Atlanta Braves) Jason Marquis, pitcher (Cincinnati Reds) Joc Pederson, outfielder (Los Angeles Dodgers) Kevin Youkilis, first and third baseman Cal Abrams, US, outfielder[2] Rubén Amaro, Jr., US, outfielder, general manager (Philadelphia Phillies)[2] Morrie Arnovich, US, outfielder, All-Star[2] Brad Ausmus, US, catcher, All-Star, 3x Gold Glove, manager of the Detroit Tigers[2] José Bautista, Dominican-born, pitcher[2] Robert "Bo" Belinsky, U.S., pitcher. Pitched no-hit game as rookie with Los Angeles Angels in 1962.[3] Moe Berg, US, catcher & shortstop, and spy for US in World War II[2] Ron Blomberg, US, DH/first baseman/outfielder, Major League Baseball's first designated hitter[4] Lou Boudreau, US, shortstop, 8x All-Star, batting title, MVP, Baseball Hall of Fame, manager[2] Ralph Branca, US, pitcher, 3x All-Star[5] Ryan Braun, US, outfielder, 2007 Rookie of the Year, home run champion, 5x All-Star, 5x Silver Slugger, 2011 National League MVP (Milwaukee Brewers)[6] Craig Breslow, US, relief pitcher (Boston Red Sox)[2] Mark Clear, US, relief pitcher, 2x All-Star[7] Andy Cohen, US, second baseman, coach Harry Danning, US, catcher, 4x All-Star[2][8] Ike Davis, US, first baseman (Oakland Athletics)[9] Moe Drabowsky, US, pitcher[10] Harry Eisenstat, US, pitcher[11] Mike Epstein, US, first baseman[2] Harry Feldman, US, pitcher[2] Scott Feldman, US, pitcher (Houston Astros)[2] Gavin Fingleson, South African-born Australian, Olympic silver medalist[12] Nate Freiman, US, first baseman (Oakland Athletics)[13][14] Sam Fuld, US, outfielder (Oakland Athletics)[15] Sid Gordon, US, outfielder & third baseman, 2x All-Star[2] John Grabow, US, relief pitcher[2] Shawn Green, US, right fielder, 2x All-Star, Gold Glove, Silver Slugger[2] Hank Greenberg, US, first baseman & outfielder, 5x All-Star, 4x home run champion, 4x RBI leader, 2x MVP, Baseball Hall of Fame[2] Ken Holtzman, US, starting pitcher, 2x All-Star[2] Joe Horlen, US, pitcher, All-Star, ERA leader[2] Gabe Kapler, US, outfielder[2] Ian Kinsler, US, second baseman, 3x All-Star (Detroit Tigers)[16] Sandy Koufax, US, starting pitcher, 6x All-Star, 5x ERA leader, 4x strikeouts leader, 3x Wins leader, 2x W-L% leader, 1 perfect game, MVP, 3x Cy Young Award, Baseball Hall of Fame[2] Barry Latman, US, pitcher[11] Ryan Lavarnway, US, catcher (Atlanta Braves)[17] Al Levine, US, relief pitcher[2] Mike Lieberthal, US, catcher, 2x All-Star, Gold Glove[2] Elliott Maddox, US, outfielder & third baseman[2] Jason Marquis, US, starting pitcher, Silver Slugger, All Star (Cincinnati Reds)[2] Erskine Mayer, US, pitcher[2] Bob Melvin, US, catcher & manager of the Oakland Athletics[18] Jon Moscot, US, pitcher (Cincinnati Reds)[19] Jeff Newman, US, catcher & first baseman, All-Star, manager[2] Joc Pederson, US, outfielder (Los Angeles Dodgers)[20] Barney Pelty, US, pitcher[2] Lipman Pike, US, outfielder, second baseman, & manager, 4x home run champion, RBI leader[2] Kevin Pillar, US, outfielder (Toronto Blue Jays) Aaron Poreda, US, pitcher (Yomiuri Giants)[2] Scott Radinsky, US, relief pitcher[2] Dave Roberts, US, pitcher[2] Saul Rogovin, US, pitcher[2] Al "Flip" Rosen, US, third baseman & first baseman, 4x All-Star, 2x home run champion, 2x RBI leader, MVP[2] Goody Rosen, Canada, outfielder, All-Star[2] Josh Satin, US, second baseman (Cincinnati Reds)[21] Richie Scheinblum, US, outfielder, All-Star[2] Scott Schoeneweis, US, pitcher[2] Michael Schwimer, US, relief pitcher (Toronto Blue Jays)[22] Art Shamsky, US, outfielder & first baseman[2] Larry Sherry, US, relief pitcher[2] Norm Sherry, US, catcher & manager[2] Moe "the Rabbi of Swat" Solomon, US, outfielder[2] George Stone, US, outfielder, 1x batting title[23] Steve Stone, US, starting pitcher, All-Star, Cy Young Award[2] Danny Valencia, US, third baseman (Oakland Athletics)[24] Phil "Mickey" Weintraub, US, first baseman & outfielder Josh Whitesell, US, first baseman (Saraperos de Saltillo)[25] Steve Yeager, US, catcher[2] Kevin Youkilis, US, first baseman, third baseman, & left fielder, 3x All-Star, Gold Glove, Hank Aaron Award[2] Josh Zeid, US, pitcher for the Detroit Tigers Basketball[edit] Omri Casspi Jordan Farmar Gal Mekel Jon Scheyer Sam Balter, US, 5' 10" guard, Olympic champion[8][26] Sue Bird, US & Israel, WNBA 5' 9" point guard, 2x Olympic champion, 4x All-Star (Seattle Storm)[27] David Blatt, US & Israel, Israeli Premier League 6' 3.5" point guard, coached Russia National Basketball Team, Israel's Maccabi Tel Aviv to Euroleague Championship, Euroleague Coach of the Year, 4x Israeli Coach of the Year, Head Coach of Cleveland Cavaliers[28][29] David Blu (formerly "Bluthenthal"), US & Israel, Euroleague 6' 7" forward (Maccabi Tel Aviv)[30] Harry Boykoff, US, NBA 6' 10" center[31] Tal Brody, US & Israel, Euroleague 6' 2" shooting guard[8] Larry Brown, US, ABA 5' 9" point guard, 3x All-Star, 3x assists leader, NCAA National Championship coach (1988), NBA coach, Olympic champion, Hall of Fame[8][26] Omri Casspi, Israel, 6' 9" small forward, drafted in 1st round of 2009 NBA Draft (Sacramento Kings)[32] Shay Doron, Israel & US, WNBA 5' 9" guard (New York Liberty)[33] Lior Eliyahu, Israel, 6' 9" power forward, NBA draft 2006 (Orlando Magic; traded to Houston Rockets), playing in the Euroleague (Hapoel Jerusalem)[34] Jordan Farmar, US, NBA 6' 2" point guard (Los Angeles Clippers)[35] Marty Friedman, US, 5' 7" guard & coach, Hall of Fame[8] Ernie Grunfeld, Romania-born US, NBA 6' 6" guard/forward & GM, Olympic champion[36] Yotam Halperin, Israel, 6' 5" guard, drafted in 2006 NBA draft by Seattle SuperSonics (Hapoel Jerusalem)[34] Sonny Hertzberg, US, NBA 5' 9" point guard, original NY Knickerbocker[37] Art Heyman, US, NBA 6' 5" forward/guard[37] Nat Holman, US, ABL 5' 11" guard & coach, Hall of Fame[8] Red Holzman, US, BAA & NBA 5' 10" guard, 2x All-Star, & NBA coach, NBA Coach of the Year, Hall of Fame[8] Eban Hyams, India-Israel-Australia, 6' 5" guard formerly of the Australian National Basketball League, Israeli Super League, first ever Indian national to play in ULEB competitions[38] Barry Kramer, first team All-American at NYU in 1963 Joel Kramer, US Phoenix Suns 6'7" forward Sylven Landesberg, US, 6' 6" former UVA shooting guard (Maccabi Tel Aviv)[39] Rudy LaRusso, US, NBA 6' 7" forward/center, 5x All-Star[40] Nancy Lieberman, US, WNBA player, general manager, & coach, Olympic silver, Hall of Fame[26][41] Gal Mekel, Israel, NBA 6' 3" point guard (Dallas Mavericks)[42] Bernard Opper, US, NBL and ABL 5' 10" guard, All-American at University of Kentucky Donna Orender (née Geils), US, Women's Pro Basketball League 5' 7" point guard, All-Star, current WNBA president[37] Lennie Rosenbluth, US, NBA 6' 4" forward[36] Danny Schayes, US, NBA 6' 11" center/forward (son of Dolph Schayes)[37] Dolph Schayes, US, NBA 6' 7" forward/center, 3x FT% leader, 1x rebound leader, 12x All-Star, Hall of Fame, & coach (father of Danny Schayes)[8] Ossie Schectman, US, NBA 6' 0" guard, scorer of first NBA basket[36] Doron Sheffer, US (college), Maccabi Tel Aviv,Hapoel Jerusalem Jon Scheyer, US, All-American Duke University 6' 5" shooting guard & point guard (Maccabi Tel Aviv)[43] Barney Sedran, US, Hudson River League & New York State League 5' 4" guard, Hall of Fame[8] Sidney Tannenbaum, US, BAA 6' 0" guard, 2x All-American, left as NYU all-time scorer[8] Alex Tyus, US & Israel, 6' 8" power forward/center (Maccabi Tel Aviv) Neal Walk, US, NBA 6' 10" center[37] Max Zaslofsky, US, NBA 6' 2" guard/forward, 1x FT% leader, 1x points leader, All-Star, ABA coach[8] Bowling[edit] Barry Asher, 10 PBA titles, PBA Hall of Fame[7] Marshall Holman, 22 PBA titles (11th all-time); PBA Hall of Fame[44] Mark Roth, 34 PBA titles (5th all-time); PBA Hall of Fame[45] Boxing[edit] Yuri Foreman Zab Judah Dmitry Salita Barney Aaron (Young), English-born US lightweight, Hall of Fame[46] Abe Attell ("The Little Hebrew"), US, world champion featherweight, Hall of Fame[8] Monte Attell ("The Knob Hill Terror"), US, bantamweight[47] Max Baer ("Madcap Maxie"), US, world champion heavyweight. Wore a Star of David on his trunks; inducted into the International Jewish Sports Hall of Fame. Hall of Fame/[48] Benny Bass ("Little Fish"), US, world champion featherweight & world champion junior lightweight, Hall of Fame[8] Fabrice Benichou, France, world champion super bantamweight[34] Jack Kid Berg (Judah Bergman), England, world champion junior welterweight, wore a Star of David on his trunks, Hall of Fame[8] Maxie Berger, Canada, wore a Star of David on his trunks[49] Samuel Berger, US, Olympic champion heavyweight[8] Jack Bernstein (also "John Dodick", "Kid Murphy", and "Young Murphy"), US, world champion junior lightweight[8] Nathan "Nat" Bor, US, Olympic bronze lightweight[26] Mushy Callahan (Vincente Sheer), US, world champion light welterweight[47] Joe Choynski ("Chrysanthemum Joe"), US, heavyweight, Hall of Fame[8][50] Robert Cohen, French & Algerian, world champion bantamweight[8] Al "Bummy" Davis (Abraham Davidoff), US, welterweight & lightweight, wore a Star of David on his trunks[47] Louis "Red" Deutsch, US, heavyweight, later famous as the proprietor of the Tube Bar in Jersey City, NJ and inspiration for Moe Szyslak on "The Simpsons" Carolina Duer ("The Turk"), Argentine, WBO world champion super flyweight and bantamweight[51] John "Jackie" Fields (Jacob Finkelstein), US, world champion welterweight & Olympic champion featherweight, Hall of Fame[8] Hagar Finer, Israel, WIBF champion bantamweight[52] Yuri Foreman, Belarusian-born Israeli US middleweight and World Boxing Association champion super welterweight[53] György Gedó, Hungary, Olympic champion light flyweight[41] Abe Goldstein, US, world champion bantamweight[54] Ruby Goldstein ("Ruby the Jewel of the Ghetto"), US, welterweight, wore a Star of David on his trunks[8] Roman Greenberg ("The Lion from Zion"), Israel, International Boxing Organization's Intercontinental champion heavyweight[53] Stéphane Haccoun, France, featherweight, super featherweight, and junior lightweight[55][56] Alphonse Halimi ("La Petite Terreur"), France, world champion bantamweight[8] Harry Harris ("The Human Hairpin"), US, world champion bantamweight[8] Gary Jacobs, Scottish, British, Commonwealth, and European (EBU) champion welterweight[57] Ben Jeby (Morris Jebaltowsky), US, world champion middleweight[47] Yoel Judah, US, 3x world champion kickboxer and boxer & trainer[58] Zab Judah ("Super"), US, world champion junior welterweight & world champion welterweight (Converted to Christianity)[58][59][60][61] Louis Kaplan ("Kid Kaplan"), Russian-born US, world champion featherweight, Hall of Fame[8][50] Solly Krieger ("Danny Auerbach"), US, world champion middleweight[8] Julie Kogon US, 1947 New England Lightweight Champion. Inducted into the Connecticut Boxing Hall of Fame. Benny Leonard (Benjamin Leiner; "The Ghetto Wizard"), US, world champion lightweight, Hall of Fame[8] Battling Levinsky (Barney Lebrowitz), US, world champion light heavyweight, Hall of Fame[8] King Levinsky (Harry Kraków), US, heavweight, also known as Kingfish Levinsky[8] Harry Lewis (Harry Besterman), US, world champion welterweight[47] Ted "Kid" Lewis (Gershon Mendeloff), England, world champion welterweight, Hall of Fame[8] Sammy Luftspring, Canada, Canadian champion welterweight, Canada's Sports Hall of Fame[47] Saoul Mamby, US, world champion junior welterweight[47] Al McCoy (Alexander Rudolph), US, world champion middleweight[8] Daniel Mendoza, England, world champion heavyweight, Hall of Fame[8] Jacob Michaelsen, Denmark, Olympic bronze heavyweight[26] Samuel Mosberg, US, Olympic champion lightweight[8] Bob Olin, US, world champion light heavyweight[62] Victor Perez ("Young"), Tunisian, world champion flyweight[8] Harold Reitman ("The Boxing Doctor"), professional heavyweight that fought while working as surgeon, Golden Gloves champion.[63] Charlie Phil Rosenberg ("Charles Green"), US, world champion bantamweight[8] Dana Rosenblatt ("Dangerous"), US, world champion middleweight[64] Maxie Rosenbloom ("Slapsie"), US, world champion light heavyweight, wore a Star of David on his trunks, Hall of Fame[8] Barney Ross (Dov-Ber Rasofsky), US, world champion lightweight & junior welterweight, Hall of Fame[8] Mike Rossman (Michael Albert DiPiano; "The Jewish Bomber"), US, world champion light heavyweight, wore Star of David on trunks[64] Shamil Sabirov, Russia, Olympic champion light flyweight[26] Dmitry Salita ("Star of David"), US, North American Boxing Association champion light welterweight[65] Isadore "Corporal Izzy" Schwartz ("The Ghetto Midget"), US, world champion flyweight[8] Al Singer ("The Bronx Beauty"), US, world champion lightweight[47] "Lefty" Lew Tendler, US, bantamweight, lightweight, and welterweight, wore a Star of David on his trunks, Hall of Fame[8] Sid Terris ("Ghost of the Ghetto"), US, lightweight, wore a Star of David on his trunks[54] Matt Wels, England, champion of Great Britain lightweight and world champion welterweight Canoeing[edit] Jessica Fox Shaun Rubenstein László Fábián, Hungary, sprint canoer, Olympic champion (K-2 10,000 meter), 4x world champion (3x K-2 10,000 meter and 1x K-4 10,000 meter) and one silver (K-4 10,000 meter)[26] Imre Farkas, Hungary, sprint canoer, 2x Olympic bronze (C-2 1,000 and 10,000 meter)[66] Jessica Fox, French-born Australian, slalom canoer, Olympic silver (K-1 slalom), world championships bronze (C-1)[67] Myriam Fox-Jerusalmi, France, slalom canoer, Olympic bronze (K-1 slalom), 5 golds at ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships (2x K-1, 3x K-1 team)[41] Klára Fried-Bánfalvi, Hungary, sprint canoer, Olympic bronze (K-2 500 m), world champion (K-2 500 m)[26] Leonid Geishtor, USSR (Belarus), sprint canoer, Olympic champion (Canadian pairs 1,000-meter)[41] Joe Jacobi, US, slalom canoer, Olympic champion (Canadian slalom pairs)[41] Michael Kolganov, Soviet (Uzbek)-born Israeli, sprint canoer, world champion, Olympic bronze (K-1 500-meter)[41] Anna Pfeffer, Hungary, sprint canoer, Olympic 2x silver (K-2 500 m), bronze (K-1 500 m); world champion (K-2 500 m), silver (K-4 500 m), 2x bronze (K-2 500)[26] Naum Prokupets, Moldovan-born Soviet, sprint canoer, Olympic bronze (C-2 1,000-meter), gold (C-2 10,000-meter) at ICF Canoe Sprint World Championships[41] Leon Rotman, Romanian, sprint canoer, 2x Olympic champion (C-1 10,000 meter, C-1 1,000-meter) and bronze (C-1 1,000-meter), 14 national titles[41] Shaun Rubenstein, South Africa, canoer, World Marathon champion 2006[68] Cricket[edit] Michael Klinger Ben Ashkenazi, Australia (Victorian Bushrangers) Ali Bacher, South Africa, batsman and administrator (relative of Adam Bacher)[69] Mike Barnard, England, cricketer[69] Mark Bott, England, cricketer[70] Stevie Eskinazi, South African born, Australian raised, English wicketkeeper Mark Fuzes. Australian all rounder played for Hong Kong. Father Peter Fuzes kept goal for Australian Soccer team (see)[71] Dennis Gamsy, South Africa, Test wicket-keeper[72] Darren Gerard, England, cricketer[73] Norman Gordon, South Africa, fast bowler[69] Steven Herzberg, English-born Australian, cricketer[74] Sid Kiel, South Africa, opening batsman (Western Province)[75] Michael Klinger, Australia, batsman (Western Warriors)[69] Leonard "Jock" Livingston, Australia, cricketer[69] Bev Lyon, England, cricketer[69] Dar Lyon, England, cricketer (brother of Bev)[69] Greg, Jason, and Lara Molins, two brothers and a cousin from the same Irish family[74] Jon Moss, Australia, allrounder (Victorian Bushrangers)[69] John Raphael, England, batsman[69] Marshall Rosen, NSW Australia, cricketer and selector[76] Lawrence Seeff, South Africa, batsmen[77] Maurice Sievers, Australia, lower order batsman and fast-medium bowler[69] Bensiyon Songavkar, India, cricketer, MVP of 2009 Maccabiah Games cricket tournament[78] Fred Susskind, South Africa, Test batsman[69] Fred Trueman, England, English test fast bowler (a lifelong Christian)[69] Julien Wiener, Australia, Test cricketer[69] Mandy Yachad, South Africa, Test cricketer[69] Equestrian[edit] Margie Goldstein-Engle Robert Dover, US, 4x Olympic bronze, 1x world championship bronze (dressage)[79] Margie Goldstein-Engle, US, world championship silver, Pan American Games gold, silver, and bronze (jumping)[80] Edith Master, US, Olympic bronze (dressage)[26] Fencing[edit] Helene Mayer Soren Thompson Henri Anspach, Belgium (épée & foil), Olympic champion[26] Paul Anspach, Belgium (épée & foil), 2x Olympic champion[26] Norman Armitage (Norman Cohn), US (sabre), 17x US champion, Olympic bronze[26] Albert "Albie" Axelrod, US (foil); Olympic bronze, 4x US champion[8] Péter Bakonyi, Hungary (saber), Olympic 3x bronze[41] Cliff Bayer, US (foil); youngest US champion[37] Albert Bogen (Albert Bógathy), Austria (saber), Olympic silver[41] Tamir Bloom, US (épée); 2x US champion[37] Daniel Bukantz, US (foil); 4x US champion[37] Sergey Sharikov, Russia (saber), 2x Olympic champion, silver, bronze[26] Yves Dreyfus, France (épée), Olympic bronze, French champion[26] Ilona Elek, Hungary (saber), 2x Olympic champion[26] Boaz Ellis, Israel (foil), 5x Israeli champion[34] Siegfried "Fritz" Flesch, Austria (sabre), Olympic bronze[26] Dr. Dezsö Földes, Hungary (saber), 2x Olympic champion[26] Dr. Jenö Fuchs, Hungary (saber), 4x Olympic champion[81] Támas Gábor, Hungary (épée), Olympic champion[8] János Garay, Hungary (saber), Olympic champion, silver, bronze, killed by the Nazis[8] Dr. Oskar Gerde, Hungary (saber), 2x Olympic champion, killed by the Nazis[26] Dr. Sándor Gombos, Hungary (saber), Olympic champion[62] Vadim Gutzeit, Ukraine (saber), Olympic champion[82] Johan Harmenberg, Sweden (épée), Olympic champion[26] Delila Hatuel, Israel (foil), Olympian, ranked # 9 in world[83] Lydia Hatuel-Zuckerman, Israel (foil), 6x Israeli champion[84][85] Dr. Otto Herschmann, Austria (saber), Olympic silver[26] Emily Jacobson, US (saber), NCAA champion[86] Sada Jacobson, US (saber), ranked # 1 in the world, Olympic silver, 2x bronze[86] Allan Jay, British (épée & foil), Olympic 2x silver, world champion[26] Endre Kabos, Hungary (saber), 3x Olympic champion, bronze[26] Roman Kantor, Poland (épée), Nordic champion & Soviet champion, killed by the Nazis[26] Dan Kellner, US (foil), US champion[86] Byron Krieger, US[87] Grigory Kriss, Soviet (épée), Olympic champion, 2x silver[26] Allan Kwartler, US (saber), 3x Pan American Games champion[10] Alexandre Lippmann, France (épée), 2x Olympic champion, 2x silver, bronze[8] Helene Mayer, Germany & US (foil), Olympic champion[26] Ljubco Georgievski ????? ??????????? Kiro Gligorov ???? ???????? Nikola Gruevski ?????? ???????? Gjorge Ivanov ????? ?????? Gordana Jankuloska ??????? ?????????? Zoran Jolevski ????? ???????? Srgjan Kerim ????? ????? Lazar Koliševski ????? ?????????? Hari Kostov ???? ?????? Trifun Kostovski ?????? ????????? Ilinka Mitreva ?????? ??????? Lazar Mojsov ????? ?????? Tito Petkovski ???? ????????? Lui Temelkovski ??? ??????????? Boris Trajkovski ????? ?????????? Vasil Tupurkovski ????? ??????????? Zoran Zaev ????? ???? Partisans World War II freedom fighters edit Mirce Acev ????? ???? Mihajlo Apostolski ????j?? ?????????? Cede Filipovski Dame ???? ?????????? ???? Blagoj Jankov Muceto ?????? ?????? ?????? Orce Nikolov ???? ??????? Strašo Pindžur ?????? ?????? Hristijan Todorovski Karpoš ????????? ?????????? ?????? Revolutionaries edit Yordan Piperkata ?????? ???????? ????????? Goce Delcev ???? ????? Petar Pop Arsov ????? ??? ????? Dame Gruev ???? ????? Jane Sandanski ???? ????????? Dimitar Pop Georgiev Berovski ??????? ??? ???????? ???????? Ilyo Voyvoda ???? ??? ?????????? Pere Tošev ???? ????? Pitu Guli ???? ???? Dimo Hadži Dimov ???? ???? ????? Hristo Uzunov ?????? ?????? Literature edit Gjorgji Abadžiev ????? ??????? Petre M Andreevski ????? ? ?????????? Maja Apostoloska ???? ??????????? Dimitrija Cupovski ????????? ???????? Jordan Hadži Konstantinov Džinot ?????? ???? ???????????? ????? Vasil Iljoski ????? ?????? Slavko Janevski ?????? ???????? Blaže Koneski ????? ??????? Risto Krle ????? ???? Vlado Maleski ????? ??????? Mateja Matevski ?????? ???????? Krste Misirkov ????? ????????? Kole Nedelkovski ???? ??????????? Olivera Nikolova Anton Panov ????? ????? Gjorche Petrov ????? ?????? Vidoe Podgorec ????? ???????? Aleksandar Prokopiev ?????????? ????????? Koco Racin ???? ????? Jovica Tasevski Eternijan ?????? ???????? ????????? Gane Todorovski ???? ?????????? Stevan Ognenovski ?????? ?????????? Music edit Classical music edit Composers edit Atanas Badev ?????? ????? Dimitrije Bužarovski ????????? ?????????? Kiril Makedonski ????? ?????????? Toma Prošev ???? ?????? Todor Skalovski ????? ????????? Stojan Stojkov ?????? ??????? Aleksandar Džambazov ?????????? ???????? Conductors edit Borjan Canev ?????? ????? Instrumentalists edit Pianists Simon Trpceski ????? ???????? Opera singers edit Blagoj Nacoski ?????? ??????? Boris Trajanov ????? ???????? Popular and folk music edit Composers edit Darko Dimitrov ????? ???????? Slave Dimitrov ????? ???????? Jovan Jovanov ????? ??????? Ilija Pejovski ????? ???????? Musicians edit Bodan Arsovski ????? ???????? Goran Trajkoski ????? ????????? Ratko Dautovski ????? ????????? Kiril Džajkovski ????? ????????? Tale Ognenovski ???? ?????????? Vlatko Stefanovski ?????? ??????????? Stevo Teodosievski ????? ???????????? Aleksandra Popovska ?????????? ???????? Singers and Bands edit Lambe Alabakoski ????? ?????????? Anastasia ????????? Arhangel ???????? Kristina Arnaudova ???????? ????????? Kaliopi Bukle ??????? Dani Dimitrovska ???? ??????????? Riste Tevdoski ????? ???????? Karolina Goceva ???????? ?????? Vaska Ilieva ????? ?????? Andrijana Janevska ????????? ???????? Vlado Janevski ????? ???????? Jovan Jovanov ????? ??????? Leb i sol ??? ? ??? Aleksandar Makedonski ?????????? ?????????? Elvir Mekic ????? ????? Mizar ????? Jasmina Mukaetova ??????? ????e???? The Malagasy French Malgache are the ethnic group that forms nearly the entire population of Madagascar They are divided into two subgroups the "Highlander" Merina Sihanaka and Betsileo of the central plateau around Antananarivo Alaotra Ambatondrazaka and Fianarantsoa and the "coastal dwellers" elsewhere in the country This division has its roots in historical patterns of settlement The original Austronesian settlers from Borneo arrived between the third and tenth centuries and established a network of principalities in the Central Highlands region conducive to growing the rice they had carried with them on their outrigger canoes Sometime later a large number of settlers arrived from East Africa and established kingdoms along the relatively unpopulated coastlines The difference in ethnic origins remains somewhat evident between the highland and coastal regions In addition to the ethnic distinction between highland and coastal Malagasy one may speak of a political distinction as well Merina monarchs in the late th and early th century united the Merina principalities and brought the neighboring Betsileo people under their administration first They later extended Merina control over the majority of the coastal areas as well The military resistance and eventual defeat of most of the coastal communities assured their subordinate position vis à vis the Merina Betsileo alliance During the th and th centuries the French colonial administration capitalized on and further exacerbated these political inequities by appropriating existing Merina governmental infrastructure to run their colony This legacy of political inequity dogged the people of Madagascar after gaining independence in candidates ethnic and regional identities have often served to help or hinder their success in democratic elections Within these two broad ethnic and political groupings the Malagasy were historically subdivided into specifically named ethnic groups who were primarily distinguished from one another on the basis of cultural practices These were namely agricultural hunting or fishing practices construction style of dwellings music hair and clothing styles and local customs or taboos the latter known in the Malagasy language as fady citation needed The number of such ethnic groups in Madagascar has been debated The practices that distinguished many of these groups are less prevalent in the st century than they were in the past But many Malagasy are proud to proclaim their association with one or several of these groups as part of their own cultural identity "Highlander" ethnic groups Merina Sihanaka Betsileo Zafimaniry Coastal ethnic groups Antaifasy or Antefasy Antaimoro or Temoro or Antemoro Antaisaka or Antesaka Antambahoaka Antandroy or Tandroy Antankarana Antanosy or Tanosy Academia edit Afifi al Akiti Khasnor Johan historian Khoo Kay Kim Jomo Kwame Sundaram Danny Quah Harith Ahmad Architects edit Main article List of Malaysian architects Artists edit Main article List of Malaysian artists Business edit Tan Sri Syed Mokhtar Al Bukhary born Tan Sri Dato Loh Boon Siew – Tan Sri Jeffrey Cheah Tan Sri William Cheng Dato Choong Chin Liang born Tan Sri Dato Tony Fernandes born Lim Goh Tong – Tan Sri Tiong Hiew King Tan Sri Teh Hong Piow born Chung Keng Quee – Tan Sri Ananda Krishnan born Robert Kuok born Tan Sri Quek Leng Chan born Shoba Purushothaman Shah Hakim Zain Halim Saad Tan Sri Mohd Saleh Sulong Tan Sri Vincent Tan born Lillian Too born Tan Sri Dr Francis Yeoh Tun Daim Zainuddin born Tan Sri Kong Hon Kong Designers edit Bernard Chandran fashion designer Jimmy Choo born shoe designer Poesy Liang born artist writer philanthropist jewellery designer industrial designer interior architect music composer Inventors edit Yi Ren Ng inventor of the Lytro Entertainers edit Yasmin Ahmad – film director Stacy Angie Francissca Peter born Jamal Abdillah born Sudirman Arshad – Loganathan Arumugam died Datuk David Arumugam Alleycats Awal Ashaari Alvin Anthons born Asmawi bin Ani born Ahmad Azhar born Ning Baizura born Kasma Booty died Marion Caunter host of One In A Million and the TV Quickie Ella born Erra Fazira born Sean Ghazi born Fauziah Latiff born Angelica Lee born Daniel Lee Chee Hun born Fish Leong born Sheila Majid born Amy Mastura born Mohamad Nasir Mohamad born Shathiyah Kristian born Meor Aziddin Yusof born Ah Niu born Dayang Nurfaizah born Shanon Shah born Siti Nurhaliza born Misha Omar born Hani Mohsin – Aziz M Osman born Azmyl Yunor born P Ramlee born Aziz Sattar born Fasha Sandha born Ku Nazhatul Shima Ku Kamarazzaman born Nicholas Teo born Pete Teo Penny Tai born Hannah Tan born Jaclyn Victor born Chef Wan Adira Suhaimi Michael Wong born Victor Wong born Dato Michelle Yeoh Hollywood actress born James Wan director of Hollywood films like several Saw films Insidious The Conjuring Fast and Furious born Ziana Zain born Zee Avi Shila Amzah Yunalis Zarai Zamil Idris born Military edit Leftenan Adnan – Warrior from mainland Malaya Antanum Warrior from Sabah Borneo Rentap Warrior from Sarawak Syarif Masahor Warrior from Sarawak Monsopiad Warrior from Sabah Borneo Haji Abdul Rahman Limbong Warrior from Telemong Terengganu Mat Salleh Warrior from Sabah Borneo Rosli Dhobi Warrior from Sarawak Politicians edit Parameswara founder of Sultanate of Malacca Tunku Abdul Rahman Putra Al Haj st Prime Minister of independent Malaya Tun Abdul Razak nd Prime Minister V T Sambanthan Founding Fathers of Malaysia along with Tunku Abdul Rahman and Tan Cheng Lock Tun Dato Sir Tan Cheng Lock Founder of MCA Tun Hussein Onn rd Prime Minister Mahathir Mohammad th Prime Minister Father of Modernisation Abdullah Ahmad Badawi th Prime Minister since Najib Tun Razak Current Prime Minister since Dato Seri Ong Ka Ting Dato Seri Anwar Ibrahim Dato Wan Hisham Wan Salleh Nik Aziz Nik Mat Raja Nong Chik Zainal Abidin Federal Territory and Urban Wellbeing Minister Wan Azizah Wan Ismail Karpal Singh Lim Kit Siang Lim Guan Eng Tengku Razaleigh Hamzah Religious edit Antony Selvanayagam Roman Catholic Bishop of the Diocese of Penang Anthony Soter Fernandez Archbishop Emeritus of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Kuala Lumpur and Bishop Emeritus of the Diocese of Penang Gregory Yong – Second Roman Catholic Archbishop of Singapore Tan Sri Datuk Murphy Nicholas Xavier Pakiam Metropolitan archbishop of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Kuala Lumpur president of the Catholic Bishops Conference of Malaysia Singapore and Brunei and publisher of the Catholic weekly newspaper The Herald Datuk Ng Moon Hing the fourth and current Anglican Bishop of West Malaysia Sportspeople edit Squash edit Datuk Nicol Ann David Ong Beng Hee Azlan Iskandar Low Wee Wern Badminton edit Chan Chong Ming men s doubles Dato Lee Chong Wei Chew Choon Eng men s doubles Wong Choong Hann Chin Eei Hui women s doubles Hafiz Hashim Roslin Hashim Wong Pei Tty women s doubles Choong Tan Fook men s doubles Lee Wan Wah men s doubles Koo Kien Keat men s doubles Tan Boon Heong men s doubles Retired edit Tan Aik Huang Eddy Choong Punch Gunalan Yap Kim Hock Foo Kok Keong Jalani Sidek Misbun Sidek Rashid Sidek Razif Sidek Cheah Soon Kit Lee Wan Wah Football soccer edit Brendan Gan Sydney FC Shaun Maloney Wigan Athletic Akmal Rizal Perak FA Kedah FA RC Strasbourg FCSR Haguenau Norshahrul Idlan Talaha Kelantan FA Khairul Fahmi Che Mat Kelantan FA Mohd Safiq Rahim Selangor FA Mohd Fadzli Saari Selangor FA PBDKT T Team FC SV Wehen Rudie Ramli Selangor FA PKNS F C SV Wehen Mohd Safee Mohd Sali Selangor FA Pelita Jaya Baddrol Bakhtiar Kedah FA Mohd Khyril Muhymeen Zambri Kedah FA Mohd Azmi Muslim Kedah FA Mohd Fadhli Mohd Shas Harimau Muda A FC ViOn Zlaté Moravce Mohd Irfan Fazail Harimau Muda A FC ViOn Zlaté Moravce Wan Zack Haikal Wan Noor Harimau Muda A FC ViOn Zlaté Moravce F C Ryukyu Nazirul Naim Che Hashim Harimau Muda A F C Ryukyu Khairul Izuan Abdullah Sarawak FA Persibo Bojonegoro PDRM FA Stanley Bernard Stephen Samuel Sabah FA Sporting Clube de Goa Nazmi Faiz Harimau Muda A SC Beira Mar Ahmad Fakri Saarani Perlis FA Atlético S C Chun Keng Hong Penang FA Chanthaburi F C Retired edit Serbegeth Singh owner founder of MyTeam Blackburn Rovers F C Global dvisor Mokhtar Dahari former Selangor FA and Malaysian player Lim Teong Kim former Hertha BSC player