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Movie Title Year Distributor Notes Rev Formats Vera storia della monaca di Monza 1980 Cinemec NonSex Theravada presentations of the path Theravada Buddhism is a diverse tradition and thus includes different explanations of the path to awakening. However, the teachings of the Buddha are often encapsulated by Theravadins in the basic framework of the Four Noble Truths and the Eighthfold Path.[229][230] Some Theravada Buddhists also follow the presentation of the path laid out in Buddhaghosa's Visuddhimagga. This presentation is known as the "Seven Purifications" (satta-visuddhi).[231] This schema and its accompanying outline of "insight knowledges" (vipassana-ña?a) is used by modern influential Theravadin scholars, such Mahasi Sayadaw (in his "The Progress of Insight") and Nyanatiloka Thera (in "The Buddha's Path to Deliverance").[232][233]
Mahayana presentations of the path Mahayana Buddhism is based principally upon the path of a Bodhisattva.[234] A Bodhisattva refers to one who is on the path to buddhahood.[235] The term Mahayana was originally a synonym for Bodhisattvayana or "Bodhisattva Vehicle."[236][237][238] In the earliest texts of Mahayana Buddhism, the path of a bodhisattva was to awaken the bodhicitta.[239] Between the 1st and 3rd century CE, this tradition introduced the Ten Bhumi doctrine, which means ten levels or stages of awakening.[239] This development was followed by the acceptance that it is impossible to achieve Buddhahood in one (current) lifetime, and the best goal is not nirvana for oneself, but Buddhahood after climbing through the ten levels during multiple rebirths.[240] Mahayana scholars then outlined an elaborate path, for monks and laypeople, and the path includes the vow to help teach Buddhist knowledge to other beings, so as to help them cross samsara and liberate themselves, once one reaches the Buddhahood in a future rebirth.[234] One part of this path are the paramita (perfections, to cross over), derived from the Jatakas tales of Buddha's numerous rebirths.[241][242] The doctrine of the bodhisattva bhumis was also eventually merged with the Sarvastivada Vaibha?ika schema of the "five paths" by the Yogacara school.[243] This Mahayana "five paths" presentation can be seen in Asanga's Mahayanasa?graha.[243] The Mahayana texts are inconsistent in their discussion of the paramitas, and some texts include lists of two, others four, six, ten and fifty-two.[244][245][246] The six paramitas have been most studied, and these are:[241][246][247]



Dana paramita: perfection of giving; primarily to monks, nuns and the Buddhist monastic establishment dependent on the alms and gifts of the lay householders, in return for generating religious merit;[248] some texts recommend ritually transferring the merit so accumulated for better rebirth to someone else Sila paramita: perfection of morality; it outlines ethical behaviour for both the laity and the Mahayana monastic community; this list is similar to Sila in the Eightfold Path (i.e. Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood)[249] K?anti paramita: perfection of patience, willingness to endure hardship Virya paramita: perfection of vigour; this is similar to Right Effort in the Eightfold Path[249] Dhyana paramita: perfection of meditation; this is similar to Right Concentration in the Eightfold Path Prajña paramita: perfection of insight (wisdom), awakening to the characteristics of existence such as karma, rebirths, impermanence, no-self, dependent origination and emptiness;[246][250] this is complete acceptance of the Buddha teaching, then conviction, followed by ultimate realisation that "dharmas are non-arising".[241] In Mahayana Sutras that include ten paramita, the additional four perfections are "skillful means, vow, power and knowledge".[245] The most discussed paramita and the highest rated perfection in Mahayana texts is the "Prajna-paramita", or the "perfection of insight".[245] This insight in the Mahayana tradition, states Shohei Ichimura, has been the "insight of non-duality or the absence of reality in all things".[251][252] East Asian Buddhism East Asian Buddhism in influenced by both the classic Indian Buddhist presentations of the path such as the eighth-fold path as well as classic Indian Mahayana presentations such as that found in the Da zhidu lun.[253] There many different presentations of soteriology, including numerous paths and vehicles (yanas) in the different traditions of East Asian Buddhism.[254] There is no single dominant presentation. In Zen Buddhism for example, one can find outlines of the path such as the Two Entrances and Four Practices, The Five ranks, The Ten Ox-Herding Pictures and The Three mysterious Gates of Linji. Indo-Tibetan Buddhism In Indo-Tibetan Buddhism, the path to liberation is outlined in the genre known as Lamrim ("Stages of the Path"). All the various Tibetan schools have their own Lamrim presentations. This genre can be traced to Atisa's 11th-century A Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment (Bodhipathapradipa).[255] Common Buddhist Practices Hearing and Learning the Dharma Sermon in the Deer Park depicted at Wat Chedi Liem-Kay In various suttas which present the graduated path taught by the Buddha, such as the Samaññaphala Sutta and the Cula-Hatthipadopama Sutta, the first step on the path is hearing the Buddha teach the Dharma.[209] This then said to lead to the acquiring of confidence or faith in the Buddha's teachings.[209] Mahayana Buddhist teachers such as Yin Shun also state that hearing the Dharma and study of the Buddhist discourses is necessary "if one wants to learn and practice the Buddha Dharma."[256] Likewise, in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism, the "Stages of the Path" (Lamrim) texts generally place the activity of listening to the Buddhist teachings as an important early practice.[257] Refuge Main article: Refuge (Buddhism) Traditionally, the first step in most Buddhist schools requires taking of the "Three Refuges", also called the Three Jewels (Sanskrit: triratna, Pali: tiratana) as the foundation of one's religious practice.[258] This practice may have been influenced by the Brahmanical motif of the triple refuge, found in the Rigveda 9.97.47, Rigveda 6.46.9 and Chandogya Upanishad 2.22.3–4.[259] Tibetan Buddhism sometimes adds a fourth refuge, in the lama. The three refuges are believed by Buddhists to be protective and a form of reverence.[258] The ancient formula which is repeated for taking refuge affirms that "I go to the Buddha as refuge, I go to the Dhamma as refuge, I go to the Sangha as refuge."[260] Reciting the three refuges, according to Harvey, is considered not as a place to hide, rather a thought that "purifies, uplifts and strengthens the heart".[172] Sila – Buddhist ethics Main article: Buddhist ethics Buddhist monks collect alms in Si Phan Don, Laos. Giving is a key virtue in Buddhism. Sila (Sanskrit) or sila (Pali) is the concept of "moral virtues", that is the second group and an integral part of the Noble Eightfold Path.[220] It generally consists of right speech, right action and right livelihood.[220] One of the most basic forms of ethics in Buddhism is the taking of "precepts". This includes the Five Precepts for laypeople, Eight or Ten Precepts for monastic life, as well as rules of Dhamma (Vinaya or Patimokkha) adopted by a monastery.[261][262] Other important elements of Buddhist ethics include giving or charity (dana), Metta (Good-Will), Heedfulness (Appamada), ‘self-respect’ (Hri) and 'regard for consequences' (Apatrapya). Precepts Main article: Five precepts Buddhist scriptures explain the five precepts (Pali: pañcasila; Sanskrit: pañcasila) as the minimal standard of Buddhist morality.[263] It is the most important system of morality in Buddhism, together with the monastic rules.[264] The five precepts are seen as a basic training applicable to all Buddhists. They are:[261][265][266] "I undertake the training-precept (sikkha-padam) to abstain from onslaught on breathing beings." This includes ordering or causing someone else to kill. The Pali suttas also say one should not "approve of others killing" and that one should be "scrupulous, compassionate, trembling for the welfare of all living beings."[267] "I undertake the training-precept to abstain from taking what is not given." According to Harvey, this also covers fraud, cheating, forgery as well as "falsely denying that one is in debt to someone."[268] "I undertake the training-precept to abstain from misconduct concerning sense-pleasures." This generally refers to adultery, as well as rape and incest. It also applies to sex with those who are legally under the protection of a guardian. It is also interpreted in different ways in the varying Buddhist cultures.[269] "I undertake the training-precept to abstain from false speech." According to Harvey this includes "any form of lying, deception or exaggeration...even non-verbal deception by gesture or other indication...or misleading statements."[270] The precept is often also seen as including other forms of wrong speech such as "divisive speech, harsh, abusive, angry words, and even idle chatter."[271] "I undertake the training-precept to abstain from alcoholic drink or drugs that are an opportunity for heedlessness." According to Harvey, intoxication is seen as a way to mask rather than face the sufferings of life. It is seen as damaging to one's mental clarity, mindfulness and ability to keep the other four precepts.[272] Undertaking and upholding the five precepts is based on the principle of non-harming (Pali and Sanskrit: ahi?sa).[273] The Pali Canon recommends one to compare oneself with others, and on the basis of that, not to hurt others.[274] Compassion and a belief in karmic retribution form the foundation of the precepts.[275][276] Undertaking the five precepts is part of regular lay devotional practice, both at home and at the local temple.[277][278] However, the extent to which people keep them differs per region and time.[279][278] They are sometimes referred to as the sravakayana precepts in the Mahayana tradition, contrasting them with the bodhisattva precepts.[280] The five precepts are not commandments and transgressions do not invite religious sanctions, but their power has been based on the Buddhist belief in karmic consequences and their impact in the afterlife. Killing in Buddhist belief leads to rebirth in the hell realms, and for a longer time in more severe conditions if the murder victim was a monk. Adultery, similarly, invites a rebirth as prostitute or in hell, depending on whether the partner was unmarried or married.[281] These moral precepts have been voluntarily self-enforced in lay Buddhist culture through the associated belief in karma and rebirth.[282] Within the Buddhist doctrine, the precepts are meant to develop mind and character to make progress on the path to enlightenment.[283] The monastic life in Buddhism has additional precepts as part of patimokkha, and unlike lay people, transgressions by monks do invite sanctions. Full expulsion from sangha follows any instance of killing, engaging in sexual intercourse, theft or false claims about one's knowledge. Temporary expulsion follows a lesser offence.[284] The sanctions vary per monastic fraternity (nikaya).[285] Lay people and novices in many Buddhist fraternities also uphold eight (asta shila) or ten (das shila) from time to time. Four of these are same as for the lay devotee: no killing, no stealing, no lying, and no intoxicants.[286] The other four precepts are:[287][286] No sexual activity; Abstain from eating at the wrong time (e.g. only eat solid food before noon); Abstain from jewellery, perfume, adornment, entertainment; Abstain from sleeping on high bed i.e. to sleep on a mat on the ground. All eight precepts are sometimes observed by lay people on uposatha days: full moon, new moon, the first and last quarter following the lunar calendar.[286] The ten precepts also include to abstain from accepting money.[286] In addition to these precepts, Buddhist monasteries have hundreds of rules of conduct, which are a part of its patimokkha.[288][note 24] Vinaya An ordination ceremony at Wat Yannawa in Bangkok. The Vinaya codes regulate the various sangha acts, including ordination. Vinaya is the specific code of conduct for a sangha of monks or nuns. It includes the Patimokkha, a set of 227 offences including 75 rules of decorum for monks, along with penalties for transgression, in the Theravadin tradition.[290] The precise content of the Vinaya Pitaka (scriptures on the Vinaya) differs in different schools and tradition, and different monasteries set their own standards on its implementation. The list of pattimokkha is recited every fortnight in a ritual gathering of all monks.[290] Buddhist text with vinaya rules for monasteries have been traced in all Buddhist traditions, with the oldest surviving being the ancient Chinese translations.[291] Monastic communities in the Buddhist tradition cut normal social ties to family and community, and live as "islands unto themselves".[292] Within a monastic fraternity, a sangha has its own rules.[292] A monk abides by these institutionalised rules, and living life as the vinaya prescribes it is not merely a means, but very nearly the end in itself.[292] Transgressions by a monk on Sangha vinaya rules invites enforcement, which can include temporary or permanent expulsion.[293] Restraint and renunciation Living at the root of a tree (trukkhamulik'anga) is one of the dhuta?gas, a series of optional ascetic practices for Buddhist monastics. Another important practice taught by the Buddha is the restraint of the senses (indriyasamvara). In the various graduated paths, this is usually presented as a practice which is taught prior to formal sitting meditation, and which supports meditation by weakening sense desires that are a hindrance to meditation.[294] According to Analayo, sense restraint is when one "guards the sense doors in order to prevent sense impressions from leading to desires and discontent."[294] This is not an avoidance of sense impression, but a kind of mindful attention towards the sense impressions which does not dwell on their main features or signs (nimitta). This is said to prevent harmful influences from entering the mind.[295] This practice is said to give rise to an inner peace and happiness which forms a basis for concentration and insight.[295] A related Buddhist virtue and practice is renunciation, or the intent for desirelessness (nekkhamma).[296] Generally, renunciation is the giving up of actions and desires that are seen as unwholesome on the path, such as lust for sensuality and worldly things.[297] Renunciation can be cultivated in different ways. The practice of giving for example, is one form of cultivating renunciation. Another one is the giving up of lay life and becoming a monastic (bhiksu o bhiksuni).[298] Practicing celibacy (whether for life as a monk, or temporarily) is also a form of renunciation.[299] Many Jataka stories such as the focus on how the Buddha practiced renunciation in past lives.[300] One way of cultivating renunciation taught by the Buddha is the contemplation (anupassana) of the "dangers" (or "negative consequences") of sensual pleasure (kamana? adinava). As part of the graduated discourse, this contemplation is taught after the practice of giving and morality.[301] Another related practice to renunciation and sense restraint taught by the Buddha is "restraint in eating" or moderation with food, which for monks generally means not eating after noon. Devout laypersons also follow this rule during special days of religious observance (uposatha).[302] Observing the Uposatha also includes other practices dealing with renunciation, mainly the eight precepts. For Buddhist monastics, renunciation can also be trained through several optional ascetic practices called dhuta?ga. In different Buddhist traditions, other related practices which focus on fasting are followed. Mindfulness and Clear Comprehension The training of the faculty called "mindfulness" (Pali: sati, Sanskrit: sm?ti, literally meaning "recollection, remembering") is central in Buddhism. According to Analayo, mindfulness is a full awareness of the present moment which enhances and strengthens memory.[303] The Indian Buddhist philosopher Asanga defined mindfulness thus: "It is non-forgetting by the mind with regard to the object experienced. Its function is non-distraction."[304] According to Rupert Gethin, sati is also "an awareness of things in relation to things, and hence an awareness of their relative value."[305] There are different practices and exercises for training mindfulness in the early discourses, such as the four Satipa??hanas (Sanskrit: sm?tyupasthana, "establishments of mindfulness") and Anapanasati (Sanskrit: anapanasm?ti, "mindfulness of breathing"). A closely related mental faculty, which is often mentioned side by side with mindfulness, is sampajañña ("clear comprehension"). This faculty is the ability to comprehend what one is doing and is happening in the mind, and whether it is being influenced by unwholesome states or wholesome ones.[306] Meditation – Samadhi and Dhyana Kodo Sawaki practicing Zazen ("sitting dhyana") Main articles: Buddhist meditation, Samadhi, Samatha, and Rupajhana A wide range of meditation practices has developed in the Buddhist traditions, but "meditation" primarily refers to the attainment of "samadhi" and the practice of dhyana (Pali: jhana). Samadhi is a calm, undistracted, unified and concentrated state of consciousness. It is defined by Asanga as "one-pointedness of mind on the object to be investigated. Its function consists of giving a basis to knowledge (jñana)."[304] Dhyana is "state of perfect equanimity and awareness (upekkha-sati-parisuddhi)," reached through focused mental training.[307] The practice of dhyana aids in maintaining a calm mind, and avoiding disturbance of this calm mind by mindfulness of disturbing thoughts and feelings.[308][note 25] Origins The earliest evidence of yogis and their meditative tradition, states Karel Werner, is found in the Kesin hymn 10.136 of the Rigveda.[309] While evidence suggests meditation was practised in the centuries preceding the Buddha,[310] the meditative methodologies described in the Buddhist texts are some of the earliest among texts that have survived into the modern era.[311][312] These methodologies likely incorporate what existed before the Buddha as well as those first developed within Buddhism.[313][note 26] There is no scholarly agreement on the origin and source of the practice of dhyana. Some scholars, like Bronkhorst, see the four dhyanas as a Buddhist invention.[317] Alexander Wynne argues that the Buddha learned dhyana from brahmanical teachers.[318] Whatever the case, the Buddha taught meditation with a new focus and interpretation, particularly through the four dhyanas methodology,[319] in which mindfulness is maintained.[320][321] Further, the focus of meditation and the underlying theory of liberation guiding the meditation has been different in Buddhism.[310][322][323] For example, states Bronkhorst, the verse 4.4.23 of the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad with its "become calm, subdued, quiet, patiently enduring, concentrated, one sees soul in oneself" is most probably a meditative state.[324] The Buddhist discussion of meditation is without the concept of soul and the discussion criticises both the ascetic meditation of Jainism and the "real self, soul" meditation of Hinduism.[325] Four rupa-jhana Seated Buddha, Gal Viharaya, Polonnawura, Sri Lanka. Buddhist texts teach various meditation schemas. One of the most prominent is that of the four rupa-jhanas (four meditations in the realm of form), which are "stages of progressively deepening concentration".[326] According to Gethin, they are states of "perfect mindfulness, stillness and lucidity."[327] They are described in the Pali Canon as trance-like states without desire.[328] In the early texts, the Buddha is depicted as entering jhana both before his awakening under the bodhi tree and also before his final nirvana (see: the Mahasaccaka-sutta and the Mahaparinibba?a Sutta).[329][330] The four rupa-jhanas are:[326][331] First jhana: the first dhyana can be entered when one is secluded from sensuality and unskillful qualities, due to withdrawal and right effort. There is piti ("rapture") and non-sensual sukha ("pleasure") as the result of seclusion, while vitarka-vicara (thought and examination) continues. Second jhana: there is piti ("rapture") and non-sensual sukha ("pleasure") as the result of concentration (samadhi-ji, "born of samadhi"); ekaggata (unification of awareness) free from vitarka-vicara ("discursive thought"); sampasadana ("inner tranquility"). Third jhana: piti drops away, there is upekkha (equanimous; "affective detachment"), and one is mindful, alert, and senses pleasure (sukha) with the body; Fourth jhana: a stage of "pure equanimity and mindfulness" (upekkhasatiparisuddhi), without any pleasure or pain, happiness or sadness. There is a wide variety of scholarly opinions (both from modern scholars and from traditional Buddhists) on the interpretation of these meditative states as well as varying opinions on how to practice them.[326][332] The formless attaiments Often grouped into the jhana-scheme are four other meditative states, referred to in the early texts as arupa samapattis (formless attainments). These are also referred to in commentarial literature as immaterial/formless jhanas (arupajhanas). The first formless attainment is a place or realm of infinite space (akasanañcayatana) without form or colour or shape. The second is termed the realm of infinite consciousness (viñña?añcayatana); the third is the realm of nothingness (akiñcaññayatana), while the fourth is the realm of "neither perception nor non-perception".[333] The four rupa-jhanas in Buddhist practice lead to rebirth in successfully better rupa Brahma heavenly realms, while arupa-jhanas lead into arupa heavens.[334][335] Meditation and Insight Kamakura Daibutsu, Kotoku-in, Kamakura, Japan. See also: Meditation and insight and Yoga In the Pali canon, the Buddha outlines two meditative qualities which are mutually supportive: samatha (Pali; Sanskrit: samatha; "calm") and vipassana (Sanskrit: vipasyana, insight).[336] The Buddha compares these mental qualities to a "swift pair of messengers" who together help deliver the message of nibbana (SN 35.245).[337] The various Buddhist traditions generally see Buddhist meditation as being divided


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