Franziska Stommer : This Is An Un Official Fan Site Tribute
Franziska Stommer Franziska Stömmer
Porn Queen Actress Superstar


Franziska Stommer

Movie Title Year Distributor Notes Rev Formats Liebesjagd durch 7 Betten 1973 WVG Medien NonSex Many early Tripi?akas, like the Pali Tipitaka, were divided into three sections: Vinaya Pitaka (focuses on monastic rule), Sutta Pitaka (Buddhist discourses) and Abhidhamma Pitaka, which contain expositions and commentaries on the doctrine. The Pali Tipitaka (also known as the Pali Canon) of the Theravada School constitutes the only complete collection of Buddhist texts in an Indic language which has survived until today.[428] However, many Sutras, Vinayas and Abhidharma works from other schools survive in Chinese translation, as part of the Chinese Buddhist Canon. According to some sources, some early schools of Buddhism had five or seven pitakas.[429] Much of the material in the Pali Canon is not specifically "Theravadin", but is instead the collection of teachings that this school preserved from the early, non-sectarian body of teachings. According to Peter Harvey, it contains material at odds with later Theravadin orthodoxy. He states: "The Theravadins, then, may have added texts to the Canon for some time, but they do not appear to have tampered with what they already had from an earlier period."[430]
Abhidharma and the Commentaries A distinctive feature of many Tripitaka collections is the inclusion of a genre called Abhidharma, which dates from the 3rd century BCE and later. According to Collett Cox, the genre began as explanations and elaborations of the teachings in the suttas but over time evolved into an independent system of doctrinal exposition.[431] Over time, the various Abhidharma traditions developed various disagreements which each other on points of doctrine, which were discussed in the different Abhidharma texts of these schools.[43] The major Abhidharma collections which modern scholars have the most information about are those of the Theravada and Sarvastivada schools.[432] In Sri Lanka and South India, the Theravada Abhidhamma system was the most influential. In addition to the Abhidharma project, some of the schools also began accumulating a literary tradition of scriptural commentary on their respective Tripitakas. These commentaries were particularly important in the Theravada school, and the Pali commentaries (A??hakatha) remain influential today. Both Abhidhamma and the Pali Commentaries influenced the Visuddhimagga, an important 5th-century text by the Theravada scholar Buddhaghosa, who also translated and compiled many of the A??hakathas from older Sinhalese sources.[433][434] The Sarvastivada school was one of the most influential Abhidharma traditions in North India.[435] The magnum opus of this tradition was the massive Abhidharma commentary called the Mahavibha?a ('Great Commentary'), compiled at a great synod in Kashmir during the reign of Kanishka II (c. 158–176).[436] The Abhidharmakosha of Vasubandhu is another very influential Abhidharma work from the northern tradition, which continues to be studied in East Asian Buddhism and in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism.[437]



Mahayana texts Main article: Mahayana sutras Tripi?aka Koreana in South Korea, over 81,000 wood printing blocks stored in racks The Tripi?aka Koreana in South Korea, an edition of the Chinese Buddhist canon carved and preserved in over 81,000 wood printing blocks The Mahayana sutras are a very broad genre of Buddhist scriptures that the Mahayana Buddhist tradition holds are original teachings of the Buddha. Modern historians generally hold that the first of these texts were composed probably around the 1st century BCE or 1st century CE.[438][439][440] In Mahayana, these texts are generally given greater authority than the early Agamas and Abhidharma literature, which are called "Sravakayana" or "Hinayana" to distinguish them from Mahayana sutras.[441] Mahayana traditions mainly see these different classes of texts as being designed for different types of persons, with different levels of spiritual understanding. The Mahayana sutras are mainly seen as being for those of "greater" capacity.[442][better source needed] The Mahayana sutras often claim to articulate the Buddha's deeper, more advanced doctrines, reserved for those who follow the bodhisattva path. That path is explained as being built upon the motivation to liberate all living beings from unhappiness. Hence the name Mahayana (lit., the Great Vehicle). Besides the teaching of the bodhisattva, Mahayana texts also contain expanded cosmologies and mythologies, with many more Buddhas and powerful bodhisattvas, as well as new spiritual practices and ideas.[443] The modern Theravada school does not treat the Mahayana sutras as authoritative or authentic teachings of the Buddha.[444] Likewise, these texts were not recognized as authoritative by many early Buddhist schools and in some cases, communities such as the Mahasa?ghika school split up due to this disagreement.[445] Buddhist monk Geshe Konchog Wangdu in red robe reads Mahayana sutras on stand Buddhist monk Geshe Konchog Wangdu reads Mahayana sutras from an old woodblock copy of the Tibetan Kanjur. Recent scholarship has discovered many early Mahayana texts which shed light into the development of Mahayana. Among these is the Salistamba Sutra which survives in Tibetan and Chinese translation. This text contains numerous sections which are remarkably similar to Pali suttas.[446][447] The Salistamba Sutra was cited by Mahayana scholars such as the 8th-century Yasomitra to be authoritative.[448] This suggests that Buddhist literature of different traditions shared a common core of Buddhist texts in the early centuries of its history, until Mahayana literature diverged about and after the 1st century CE.[446] Mahayana also has a very large literature of philosophical and exegetical texts. These are often called sastra (treatises) or vrittis (commentaries). Some of this literature was also written in verse form (karikas), the most famous of which is the Mulamadhyamika-karika (Root Verses on the Middle Way) by Nagarjuna, the foundational text of the Madhyamika school. Tantric texts Main article: Tantras (Buddhism) During the Gupta Empire, a new class of Buddhist sacred literature began to develop, which are called the Tantras.[449] By the 8th century, the tantric tradition was very influential in India and beyond. Besides drawing on a Mahayana Buddhist framework, these texts also borrowed deities and material from other Indian religious traditions, such as the Saiva and Pancharatra traditions, local god/goddess cults, and local spirit worship (such as yaksha or naga spirits).[450][451] Some features of these texts include the widespread use of mantras, meditation on the subtle body, worship of fierce deities, and antinomian and transgressive practices such as ingesting alcohol and performing sexual rituals.[452][453][454] History Main article: History of Buddhism Historical roots Mahakasyapa meets an Ajivika ascetic, one of the common Srama?a groups in ancient India Historically, the roots of Buddhism lie in the religious thought of Iron Age India around the middle of the first millennium BCE.[455] This was a period of great intellectual ferment and socio-cultural change known as the "Second urbanisation", marked by the growth of towns and trade, the composition of the Upanishads and the historical emergence of the Srama?a traditions.[456][457][note 29] New ideas developed both in the Vedic tradition in the form of the Upanishads, and outside of the Vedic tradition through the Srama?a movements.[460][461][462] The term Srama?a refers to several Indian religious movements parallel to but separate from the historical Vedic religion, including Buddhism, Jainism and others such as Ajivika.[463] Several Srama?a movements are known to have existed in India before the 6th century BCE (pre-Buddha, pre-Mahavira), and these influenced both the astika and nastika traditions of Indian philosophy.[464] According to Martin Wilshire, the Srama?a tradition evolved in India over two phases, namely Paccekabuddha and Savaka phases, the former being the tradition of individual ascetic and the latter of disciples, and that Buddhism and Jainism ultimately emerged from these.[465] Brahmanical and non-Brahmanical ascetic groups shared and used several similar ideas,[466] but the Srama?a traditions also drew upon already established Brahmanical concepts and philosophical roots, states Wiltshire, to formulate their own doctrines.[464][467] Brahmanical motifs can be found in the oldest Buddhist texts, using them to introduce and explain Buddhist ideas.[468] For example, prior to Buddhist developments, the Brahmanical tradition internalised and variously reinterpreted the three Vedic sacrificial fires as concepts such as Truth, Rite, Tranquility or Restraint.[469] Buddhist texts also refer to the three Vedic sacrificial fires, reinterpreting and explaining them as ethical conduct.[470] The Srama?a religions challenged and broke with the Brahmanic tradition on core assumptions such as Atman (soul, self), Brahman, the nature of afterlife, and they rejected the authority of the Vedas and Upanishads.[471][472][473] Buddhism was one among several Indian religions that did so.[473] Indian Buddhism Ajanta Caves, Cave 10, a first period type chaitya worship hall with stupa but no idols. Main article: History of Buddhism in India The history of Indian Buddhism may be divided into five periods:[474] Early Buddhism (occasionally called pre-sectarian Buddhism), Nikaya Buddhism or Sectarian Buddhism: The period of the early Buddhist schools, Early Mahayana Buddhism, Late Mahayana, and the era of Vajrayana or the "Tantric Age". Pre-sectarian Buddhism Main article: Pre-sectarian Buddhism According to Lambert Schmithausen Pre-sectarian Buddhism is "the canonical period prior to the development of different schools with their different positions."[475] The early Buddhist Texts include the four principal Pali Nikayas [note 30] (and their parallel Agamas found in the Chinese canon) together with the main body of monastic rules, which survive in the various versions of the patimokkha.[476][477][478] However, these texts were revised over time, and it is unclear what constitutes the earliest layer of Buddhist teachings. One method to obtain information on the oldest core of Buddhism is to compare the oldest extant versions of the Theravadin Pali Canon and other texts.[note 31] The reliability of the early sources, and the possibility to draw out a core of oldest teachings, is a matter of dispute.[481] According to Vetter, inconsistencies remain, and other methods must be applied to resolve those inconsistencies.[479][note 32] According to Schmithausen, three positions held by scholars of Buddhism can be distinguished:[486] "Stress on the fundamental homogeneity and substantial authenticity of at least a considerable part of the Nikayic materials;"[note 33] "Scepticism with regard to the possibility of retrieving the doctrine of earliest Buddhism;"[note 34] "Cautious optimism in this respect."[note 35] The Core teachings According to Mitchell, certain basic teachings appear in many places throughout the early texts, which has led most scholars to conclude that Gautama Buddha must have taught something similar to the Four Noble Truths, the Noble Eightfold Path, Nirvana, the three marks of existence, the five aggregates, dependent origination, karma and rebirth.[493] According to N. Ross Reat, all of these doctrines are shared by the Theravada Pali texts and the Mahasamghika school's Salistamba Sutra.[494] A recent study by Bhikkhu Analayo concludes that the Theravada Majjhima Nikaya and Sarvastivada Madhyama Agama contain mostly the same major doctrines.[495] Richard Salomon, in his study of the Gandharan texts (which are the earliest manuscripts containing early discourses), has confirmed that their teachings are "consistent with non-Mahayana Buddhism, which survives today in the Theravada school of Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia, but which in ancient times was represented by eighteen separate schools."[496] However, some scholars argue that critical analysis reveals discrepancies among the various doctrines found in these early texts, which point to alternative possibilities for early Buddhism.[497][498][499] The authenticity of certain teachings and doctrines have been questioned. For example, some scholars think that karma was not central to the teaching of the historical Buddha, while other disagree with this position.[500][501] Likewise, there is scholarly disagreement on whether insight was seen as liberating in early Buddhism or whether it was a later addition to the practice of the four jhanas.[482][502][503] Scholars such as Bronkhorst also think that the four noble truths may not have been formulated in earliest Buddhism, and did not serve in earliest Buddhism as a description of "liberating insight".[504] According to Vetter, the description of the Buddhist path may initially have been as simple as the term "the middle way".[138] In time, this short description was elaborated, resulting in the description of the eightfold path.[138] Ashokan Era and the early schools Main articles: Early Buddhist schools, Buddhist councils, and Theravada Sanchi Stupa No. 2, near Vidisha , Madhya Pradesh , India. According to numerous Buddhist scriptures, soon after the parinirva?a (from Sanskrit: "highest extinguishment") of Gautama Buddha, the first Buddhist council was held to collectively recite the teachings to ensure that no errors occurred in oral transmission. Many modern scholars question the historicity of this event.[505] However, Richard Gombrich states that the monastic assembly recitations of the Buddha's teaching likely began during Buddha's lifetime, and they served a similar role of codifying the teachings.[506] The so called Second Buddhist council resulted in the first schism in the Sangha. Modern scholars believe that this was probably caused when a group of reformists called Sthaviras ("elders") sought to modify the Vinaya (monastic rule), and this caused a split with the conservatives who rejected this change, they were called Mahasa?ghikas.[507][508] While most scholars accept that this happened at some point, there is no agreement on the dating, especially if it dates to before or after the reign of Ashoka.[509] Map of the Buddhist missions during the reign of Ashoka according to the Edicts of Ashoka. Buddhism may have spread only slowly throughout India until the time of the Mauryan emperor Ashoka (304–232 BCE), who was a public supporter of the religion. The support of Asoka and his descendants led to the construction of more stupas (such as at Sanchi and Bharhut), temples (such as the Mahabodhi Temple) and to its spread throughout the Maurya Empire and into neighbouring lands such as Central Asia and to the island of Sri Lanka. During and after the Mauryan period (322–180 BCE), the Sthavira community gave rise to several schools, one of which was the Theravada school which tended to congregate in the south and another which was the Sarvastivada school, which was mainly in north India. Likewise, the Mahasa?ghika groups also eventually split into different Sanghas. Originally, these schisms were caused by disputes over monastic disciplinary codes of various fraternities, but eventually, by about 100 CE if not earlier, schisms were being caused by doctrinal disagreements too.[510] Following (or leading up to) the schisms, each Sa?gha started to accumulate their own version of Tripi?aka (triple basket of texts).[45][511] In their Tripi?aka, each school included the Suttas of the Buddha, a Vinaya basket (disciplinary code) and some schools also added an Abhidharma basket which were texts on detailed scholastic classification, summary and interpretation of the Suttas.[45][512] The doctrine details in the Abhidharmas of various Buddhist schools differ significantly, and these were composed starting about the third century BCE and through the 1st millennium CE.[513][514][515] Post-Ashokan expansion Main article: Silk Road transmission of Buddhism Extent of Buddhism and trade routes in the 1st century CE. According to the edicts of Asoka, the Mauryan emperor sent emissaries to various countries west of India to spread "Dharma", particularly in eastern provinces of the neighbouring Seleucid Empire, and even farther to Hellenistic kingdoms of the Mediterranean. It is a matter of disagreement among scholars whether or not these emissaries were accompanied by Buddhist missionaries.[516] In central and west Asia, Buddhist influence grew, through Greek-speaking Buddhist monarchs and ancient Asian trade routes, a phenomenon known as Greco-Buddhism. An example of this is evidenced in Chinese and Pali Buddhist records, such as Milindapanha and the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara. The Milindapanha describes a conversation between a Buddhist monk and the 2nd-century BCE Greek king Menander, after which Menander abdicates and himself goes into monastic life in the pursuit of nirvana.[517][518] Some scholars have questioned the Milindapanha version, expressing doubts whether Menander was Buddhist or just favourably disposed to Buddhist monks.[519] The Kushan empire (30–375 CE) came to control the Silk Road trade through Central and South Asia, which brought them to interact with Gandharan Buddhism and the Buddhist institutions of these regions. The Kushans patronised Buddhism throughout their lands, and many Buddhist centers were built or renovated (the Sarvastivada school was particularly favored), especially by Emperor Kanishka (128–151 CE).[520][521] Kushan support helped Buddhism to expand into a world religion through their trade routes.[522] Buddhism spread to Khotan, the Tarim Basin, and China, eventually to other parts of the far east.[521] Some of the earliest written documents of the Buddhist faith are the Gandharan Buddhist texts, dating from about the 1st century CE, and connected to the Dharmaguptaka school.[523][524][525] The Islamic conquest of the Iranian Plateau in the 7th-century, followed by the Muslim conquests of Afghanistan and the later establishment of the Ghaznavid kingdom with Islam as the state religion in Central Asia between the 10th- and 12th-century led to the decline and disappearance of Buddhism from most of these regions.[526] Mahayana Buddhism Main article: Mahayana stone statue group, a Buddhist triad depicting, left to right, a Kushan, the future buddha Maitreya, Gautama Buddha, the bodhisattva Avalokitesvara, and a Buddhist monk. 2nd–3rd century. Guimet Museum A Buddhist triad depicting, left to right, a Kushan, the future buddha Maitreya, Gautama Buddha, the bodhisattva Avalokitesvara, and a monk. Second–third century. Guimet Museum The origins of Mahayana ("Great Vehicle") Buddhism are not well understood and there are various competing theories about how and where this movement arose. Theories include the idea that it began as various groups venerating certain texts or that it arose as a strict forest ascetic movement.[527] The first Mahayana works were written sometime between the 1st century BCE and the 2st century CE.[439][527] Much of the early extant evidence for the origins of Mahayana comes from early Chinese translations of Mahayana texts, mainly those of Lokak?ema. (2nd century CE).[note 36] Some scholars have traditionally considered the earliest Mahayana sutras to include the very first versions of the Prajnaparamita series, along with texts concerning Ak?obhya, which were probably composed in the 1st century BCE in the south of India.[529][note 37] There is no evidence that Mahayana ever referred to a separate formal school or sect of Buddhism, with a separate monastic code (Vinaya), but rather that it existed as a certain set of ideals, and later doctrines, for bodhisattvas.[531][532] Records written by Chinese monks visiting India indicate that both Mahayana and non-Mahayana monks could be found in the same monasteries, with the difference that Mahayana monks worshipped figures of Bodhisattvas, while non-Mahayana monks did not.[533] Site of Nalanda University, a great center of Mahayana thought Mahayana initially seems to have remained a small minority movement that was in tension with other Buddhist groups, struggling for wider acceptance.[534] However, during the fifth and sixth centuries CE, there seems to have been a rapid growth of Mahayana Buddhism, which is shown by a large increase in epigraphic and manuscript evidence in this period. However, it still remained a minority in comparison to other Buddhist schools.[535] Mahayana Buddhist institutions continued to grow in influence during the following centuries, with large monastic university complexes such as Nalanda (established by the 5th-century CE Gupta emperor, Kumaragupta I) and Vikramashila (established under Dharmapala c. 783 to 820) becoming quite powerful and influential. During this period of Late Mahayana, four major types of thought developed: Madhyamaka, Yogacara, Buddha-nature (Tathagatagarbha), and the Pramana school of Dignaga.[536] According to Dan Lusthaus, Madhyamaka and Yogacara have a great deal in common, and the commonality stems from early Buddhism.[537] Late Indian Buddhism and Tantra Main article: Vajrayana Vajrayana adopted deities such as Bhairava, known as Yamantaka in Tibetan Buddhism. During the Gupta period (4th–6th centuries) and the empire of Har?avardana (c. 590–647 CE), Buddhism continued to be influential in India, and large Buddhist learning institutions such as Nalanda and Valabahi Universities were at their peak.[538] Buddhism also flourished under the support of the Pala Empire (8th–12th centuries). Under the Guptas and Palas, Tantric Buddhism or Vajrayana developed and rose to prominence. It promoted new practices such as the use of mantras, dharanis, mudras, mandalas and the visualization of deities and Buddhas and developed a new class of literature, the Buddhist Tantras. This new esoteric form of Buddhism can be traced back to groups of wandering yogi magicians called mahasiddhas.[539][540] The question of the origins of early Vajrayana has been taken up by various scholars. David Seyfort Ruegg has suggested that Buddhist tantra employed various elements of a “pan-Indian religious substrate” which is not specifically Buddhist, Shaiva or Vaishnava.[541] According to Indologist Alexis Sanderson, various classes of Vajrayana literature developed as a result of royal courts sponsoring both Buddhism and Saivism. Sanderson has argued that Buddhist tantras can be shown to have borrowed practices, terms, rituals and more form Shaiva tantras. He argues that Buddhist texts even directly copied various Shaiva tantras, especially the Bhairava Vidyapitha tantras.[542][543] Ronald M. Davidson meanwhile, argues that Sanderson's claims for direct influence from Shaiva Vidyapitha texts are problematic because "the chronology of the Vidyapitha tantras is by no means so well established"[544] and that the Shaiva tradition also appropriated non-Hindu deities, texts and traditions. Thus while "there can be no question that the Buddhist tantras were heavily influenced by Kapalika and other Saiva movements" argues Davidson, "the influence was apparently mutual."[545] Already during this later era, Buddhism was losing state support in other regions of India, including the lands of the Karkotas, the Pratiharas, the Rashtrakutas, the Pandyas and the Pallavas. This loss of support in favor of Hindu faiths like Vaishnavism and Shaivism, is the beginning of the long and complex period of the Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent.[546] The Islamic invasions and conquest of India (10th to 12th century), further damaged and destroyed many Buddhist institutions, leading to its eventual near disappearance from India by the 1200s.[547] Spread to East and Southeast Asia Angkor Thom build by Khmer King Jayavarman VII (c. 1120–1218). The Silk Road transmission of Buddhism to China is most commonly thought to have started in the late 2nd or the 1st century CE, though the literary sources are all open to question.[548][note 38] The first documented translation efforts by foreign Buddhist monks in China were in the 2nd century CE, probably as a consequence of the expansion of the Kushan Empire into the Chinese territory of the Tarim Basin.[550] The first documented Buddhist texts translated into Chinese are those of the Parthian An Shigao (148–180 CE).[551] The first known Mahayana scriptural texts are translations into Chinese by the Kushan monk Lokak?ema in Luoyang, between 178 and 189 CE.[552] From China, Buddhism was introduced into its neighbours Korea (4th century), Japan (6th–7th centuries), and Vietnam (c. 1st–2nd centuries).[553][553][554] During the Chinese Tang dynasty (618–907), Chinese Esoteric Buddhism was introduced from India and Chan Buddhism (Zen) became a major religion.[555][556] Chan continued to grow in the Song dynasty (960–1279) and it was during this era that it strongly influenced Korean Buddhism and Japanese Buddhism.[557] Pure Land Buddhism also became popular during this period and was often practised together with Chan.[558] It was also during the Song that the entire Chinese canon was printed using over 130,000 wooden printing blocks.[559] During the Indian period of Esoteric Buddhism (from the 8th century onwards), Buddhism spread from India to Tibet and Mongolia. Johannes Bronkhorst states that the esoteric form was attractive because it allowed both a secluded monastic community as well as the social rites and rituals important to laypersons and to kings for the maintenance of a political state during succession and wars to resist invasion.[560] During the Middle Ages, Buddhism slowly declined in India,[561] while it vanished from Persia and Central Asia as Islam became the state religion.[562][563] The Theravada school arrived in Sri Lanka sometime in the 3rd century BCE. Sri Lanka became a base for its later spread to southeast Asia after the 5th century CE (Myanmar, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, Cambodia and coastal Vietnam).[564][565] Theravada Buddhism was the dominant religion in Burma during the Mon Hanthawaddy Kingdom (1287–1552).[566] It also became dominant in the Khmer Empire during the 13th and 14th centuries and in the Thai Sukhothai Kingdom during the reign of Ram Khamhaeng (1237/1247–1298).[567][568] Schools and traditions Main articles: Schools of Buddhism and Timeline of Buddhism § Common Era color map showing Buddhism is a major religion worldwide Distribution of major Buddhist traditions Buddhists generally classify themselves as either Theravada or Mahayana.[569] This classification is also used by some scholars[570] and is the one ordinarily used in the English language.[web 9] An alternative scheme used by some scholars divides Buddhism into the following three traditions or geographical or cultural areas: Theravada (or "Southern Buddhism", "South Asian Buddhism"), East Asian Buddhism (or just "Eastern Buddhism") and Indo-Tibetan Buddhism (or "Northern Buddhism").[note 39] Buddhists of various traditions, Yeunten Ling Tibetan Institute Some scholars[note 40] use other schemes. Buddhists themselves have a variety of other schemes. Hinayana (literally "lesser or inferior vehicle") is sometimes used by Mahayana followers to name the family of early philosophical schools and traditions from which contemporary Theravada emerged, but as the Hinayana term is considered derogatory, a variety of other terms are used instead, including: Sravakayana, Nikaya Buddhism, early Buddhist schools, sectarian Buddhism and conservative Buddhism.[572][573] Not all traditions of Buddhism share the same philosophical outlook, or treat the same concepts as central. Each tradition, however, does have its own core concepts, and some comparisons can be drawn between them:[574][575] Both Theravada and Mahayana accept and revere the Buddha Sakyamuni as the founder, Mahayana also reveres numerous other Buddhas, such as Amitabha or Vairocana as well as many other bodhisattvas not revered in Theravada. Both accept the Middle Way, Dependent origination, the Four Noble Truths, the Noble Eightfold Path, the Three Jewels, the Three marks of existence and the Bodhipak?adharmas (aids to awakening). Mahayana focuses mainly on the bodhisattva path to Buddhahood which it sees as universal and to be practiced by all persons, while Theravada does not focus on teaching this path and teaches the attainment of arhatship as a worthy goal to strive towards. The bodhisattva path is not denied in Theravada, it is generally seen as a long and difficult path suitable for only a few.[576] Thus the Bodhisattva path is normative in Mahayana, while it is an optional path for a heroic few in Theravada.[577] Mahayana sees the arhat's nirvana as being imperfect and inferior or preliminary to full Buddhahood. It sees arhatship as selfish, since bodhisattvas vow to save all beings while arhats save only themselves.[578] Theravada meanwhile does not accept that the arhat's nirvana is an inferior or preliminary attainment, nor that it is a selfish deed to attain arhatship since not only are arhats described as compassionate but they have destroyed the root of greed, the sense of "I am".[577] Mahayana accepts the authority of the many Mahayana sutras along with the other Nikaya texts like the Agamas and the Pali canon (though it sees Mahayana texts as primary), while Theravada does not accept that the Mahayana sutras are buddhavacana (word of the Buddha) at all.[579] Theravada school Monastics and white clad laypersons celebrate Vesak, Vipassakna Dhaurak, Cambodia Main article: Theravada The Theravada tradition bases itself on the Pali Canon, considers itself to be the more orthodox form of Buddhism and tends to be more conservative in doctrine and monastic discipline.[580][581][582] The Pali Canon is the only complete Buddhist canon surviving in an ancient Indian language. This language, Pali, serves as the school's sacred language and lingua franca.[583] Besides the Pali Canon, Theravada scholastics also often rely on a post-canonical Pali literature which comments on and interprets the Pali Canon. These later works such as the Visuddhimagga, a doctrinal summa written in the fifth century by the exegete Buddhaghosa also remain influential today.[584] Theravada derives from the Mahavihara (Tamrapar?iya) sect, a Sri Lankan branch of the Vibhajyavada Sthaviras, which began to establish itself on the island from the 3rd century BCE onwards. Theravada flourished in south India and Sri Lanka in ancient times; from there it spread for the first time into mainland southeast Asia about the 11th century into its elite urban centres.[585] By the 13th century, Theravada had spread widely into the rural areas of mainland southeast Asia,[585] displacing Mahayana Buddhism and some traditions of Hinduism.[586][587][588] In the modern era, Buddhist figures such as Anagarika Dhammapala and King Mongkut sought to re-focus the tradition on the Pali Canon, as well as emphasize the rational and "scientific" nature of Theravada while also opposing "superstition".[589] This movement, often termed Buddhist modernism, has influenced most forms of modern Theravada. Another influential modern turn in Theravada is the Vipassana Movement, which led to the widespread adoption of meditation by laypersons. Theravada is primarily practised today in Sri Lanka, Burma, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia as well as small portions of China, Vietnam, Malaysia and Bangladesh. It has a growing presence in the west, especially as part of the Vipassana Movement. Mahayana traditions Chinese Buddhist monks performing a formal ceremony in Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, China. Main article: Mahayana Mahayana ("Great Vehicle") refers to all forms of Buddhism which consider the Mahayana Sutras as authoritative scriptures and accurate rendering of Buddha's words.[446] These traditions have been the more liberal form of Buddhism allowing different and new interpretations that emerged over time.[590] The focus of Mahayana is the path of the bodhisattva (bodhisattvayana), though what this path means is interpreted in many different ways. The first Mahayana texts date to sometime between the 1st century BCE and the 2st century CE. It remained a minority movement until the time of the Guptas and Palas, when great Mahayana monastic centres of learning such as Nalanda University were established as evidenced by records left by three Chinese visitors to India.[591][592] These universities supported Buddhist scholarship, as well as studies into non-Buddhist traditions and secular subjects such as medicine. They hosted visiting students who then spread Buddhism to East and Central Asia.[591][593] Native Mahayana Buddhism is practised today in China, Japan, Korea, Singapore, parts of Russia and most of Vietnam (also commonly referred to as "Eastern Buddhism"). The Buddhism practised in Tibet, the Himalayan regions, and Mongolia is also a form of Mahayana, but is also different in many ways due to its adoption of tantric practices and is discussed below under the heading of "Vajrayana" (also commonly referred to as "Northern Buddhism"). Tibetan Buddhists practicing Chöd with various ritual implements, such as the Damaru drum, hand-bell, and Kangling (thighbone trumpet). Ruins of a temple at the Erdene Zuu Monastery complex in Mongolia. There are a variety of strands in Eastern Buddhism, of which "the Pure Land school of Mahayana is the most widely practised today."[594] In most of China, these different strands and traditions are generally fused together. Vietnamese Mahayana is similarly very eclectic. In Japan in particular, they form separate denominations with the five major ones being: Nichiren, peculiar to Japan; Pure Land; Shingon, a form of Vajrayana; Tendai, and Zen. In Korea, nearly all Buddhists belong to the Chogye school, which is officially Son (Zen), but with substantial elements from other traditions.[595] Vajrayana traditions Main article: Vajrayana The goal and philosophy of the Vajrayana remains Mahayanist, but its methods are seen by its followers as far more powerful, so as to lead to Buddhahood in just one lifetime.[596] The practice of using mantras was adopted from Hinduism, where they were first used in the Vedas.[597] Tibetan Buddhism preserves the Vajrayana teachings of eighth-century India.[11] Tantric Buddhism is largely concerned with ritual and meditative practices.[598] A central feature of Buddhist Tantra is deity yoga which includes visualisation and identification with an enlightened yidam or meditation deity and its associated mandala. Another element of Tantra is the need for ritual initiation or empowerment (abhi?eka) by a Guru or Lama.[599] Some Tantras like the Guhyasamaja Tantra features new forms of antinomian ritual practice such as the use taboo substances like alcohol, sexual yoga, and charnel ground practices which evoke wrathful deities.[600][601] Monasteries and temples Various types of Buddhist buildings Buddhist institutions are often housed and centered around monasteries (Sanskrit:viharas) and temples. Buddhist monastics originally followed a life of wandering, never staying in one place for long. During the three month rainy season (vassa) they would gather together in one place for a period of intense practice and then depart again.[602][603] Some of the earliest Buddhist monasteries were at groves (vanas) or woods (araññas), such as Jetavana and Sarnath's Deer Park. There originally seems to have been two main types of monasteries, monastic settlements (sangharamas) were built and supported by donors, and woodland camps (avasas) were set up by monks. Whatever structures were built in these locales were made out of wood and were sometimes temporary structures built for the rainy season.[604][605] Over time, the wandering community slowly adopted more settled cenobitic forms of monasticism.[606] Also, these monasteries slowly evolved from the simpler collections of rustic dwellings of early Buddhism into larger more permanent structures meant to house the entire community, who now lived in a more collective fashion.[607] During the Gupta era, even larger monastic university complexes (like Nalanda) arose, with larger and more artistically ornate structures, as well as large land grants and accumulated wealth.[608] There are many different forms of Buddhist structures. Classic Indian Buddhist institutions mainly made use of the following structures: monasteries, rock-hewn cave complexes (such as the Ajanta Caves), stupas (funerary mounds which contained relics), and temples such as the Mahabodhi Temple.[609] In Southeast Asia, the most widespread institutions are centered on wats, which refers to an establishment with various buildings such as an ordination hall, a library, monks' quarters and stupas. East Asian Buddhist institutions also use various structures including monastic halls, temples, lecture halls, bell towers and pagodas. In Japanese Buddhist temples, these different structures are usually grouped together in an area termed the garan. In Indo-Tibetan Buddhism, Buddhist institutions are generally housed in gompas. They include monastic quarters, stupas and prayer halls with Buddha images. The complexity of Buddhist institutions varies, ranging from minimalist and rustic forest monasteries to large monastic centers like Tawang Monastery. The core of traditional Buddhist institutions is the monastic community (Sangha) who manage and lead religious services. They are supported by the lay community who visit temples and monasteries for religious services and holidays. In the modern era, the Buddhist "meditation centre", which is mostly used by laypersons and often also staffed by them, has also become widespread.[610] Buddhism in the modern era Main articles: Buddhism by country, Western Buddhism, and Buddhist modernism Buddhist monk in Siberia in robes leaning on railing looking at temple Buryat Buddhist monk in Siberia Colonial era Buddhism has faced various challenges and changes during the colonisation of Buddhist states by Christian countries and its persecution under modern states. Like other religions, the findings of modern science has challenged its basic premises. One response to some of these challenges has come to be called Buddhist modernism. Early Buddhist modernist figures such as the American convert Henry Olcott (1832– 1907) and Anagarika Dharmapala (1864–1933) reinterpreted and promoted Buddhism as a scientific and rational religion which they saw as compatible with modern science.[611] East Asian Buddhism meanwhile suffered under various wars which ravaged China during the modern era, such as the Taiping rebellion and World War II (which also affected Korean Buddhism). During the Republican period (1912–49), a new movement called Humanistic Buddhism was developed by figures such as Taixu (1899–1947), and though Buddhist institutions were destroyed during the Cultural Revolution (1966–76), there has been a revival of the religion in China after 1977.[612] Japanese Buddhism also went through a period of modernisation during the Meiji period.[613] In Central Asia meanwhile, the arrival of Communist repression to Tibet (1966–1980) and Mongolia (between 1924–1990) had a strong negative impact on Buddhist institutions, though the situation has improved somewhat since the 80s and 90s.[614] Buddhism in the West 1893 World Parliament of Religions in Chicago While there were some encounters of Western travellers or missionaries such as St. Francis Xavier and Ippolito Desideri with Buddhist cultures, it was not until the 19th century that Buddhism began to be studied by Western scholars. It was the work of pioneering scholars such as Eugène Burnouf, Max Müller, Hermann Oldenberg and Thomas William Rhys Davids that paved the way for modern Buddhist studies in the West. The English words such as Buddhism, "Boudhist", "Bauddhist" and Buddhist were coined in the early 19th-century in the West,[615] while in 1881, Rhys Davids founded the Pali Text Society – an influential Western resource of Buddhist literature in the Pali language and one of the earliest publisher of a journal on Buddhist studies.[616] It was also during the 19th century that Asian Buddhist immigrants (mainly from China and Japan) began to arrive in Western countries such as the United States and Canada, bringing with them their Buddhist religion. This period also saw the first Westerners to formally convert to Buddhism, such as Helena Blavatsky and Henry Steel Olcott.[617] An important event in the introduction of Buddhism to the West was the 1893 World Parliament of Religions, which for the first time saw well-publicized speeches by major Buddhist leaders alongside other religious leaders. The 20th century saw a prolific growth of new Buddhist institutions in Western countries, including the Buddhist Society, London (1924), Das Buddhistische Haus (1924) and Datsan Gunzechoinei in St Petersburg. The publication and translations of Buddhist literature in Western languages thereafter accelerated. After the second world war, further immigration from Asia, globalisation, the secularisation on Western culture as well a renewed interest in Buddhism among the 60s counterculture led to further growth in Buddhist institutions.[618] Influential figures on post-war Western Buddhism include Shunryu Suzuki, Jack Kerouac, Alan Watts, Thích Nh?t H?nh, and the 14th Dalai Lama. While Buddhist institutions have grown, some of the central premises of Buddhism such as the cycles of rebirth and Four Noble Truths have been problematic in the West.[619][620][621] In contrast, states Christopher Gowans, for "most ordinary [Asian] Buddhists, today as well as in the past, their basic moral orientation is governed by belief in karma and rebirth".[622] Most Asian Buddhist laypersons, states Kevin Trainor, have historically pursued Buddhist rituals and practices seeking better rebirth,[623] not nirvana or freedom from rebirth.[624] Buddha statue in 1896, Bamiyan After statue destroyed by Islamist Taliban in 2001 Buddhas of Bamiyan, Afghanistan in 1896 (top) and after destruction in 2001 by the Taliban Islamists.[625] Buddhism has spread across the world,[626][627] and Buddhist texts are increasingly translated into local languages. While Buddhism in the West is often seen as exotic and progressive, in the East it is regarded as familiar and traditional. In countries such as Cambodia and Bhutan, it is recognised as the state religion and receives government support. In certain regions such as Afghanistan and Pakistan, militants have targeted violence and destruction of historic Buddhist monuments.[628][629] Neo-Buddhism movements A number of modern movements in Buddhism emerged during the second half of the 20th century.[630][631] These new forms of Buddhism are diverse and significantly depart from traditional beliefs and practices.[632] In India, B.R. Ambedkar launched the Navayana tradition – literally, "new vehicle". Ambedkar's Buddhism rejects the foundational doctrines and historic practices of traditional Theravada and Mahayana traditions, such as monk lifestyle after renunciation, karma, rebirth, samsara, meditation, nirvana, Four Noble Truths and others.[633][634][635] Ambedkar's Navayana Buddhism considers these as superstitions and re-interprets the original Buddha as someone who taught about class struggle and social equality.[636][637] Ambedkar urged low caste Indian Dalits to convert to his Marxism-inspired[635] reinterpretation called the Navayana Buddhism, also known as Bhimayana Buddhism. Ambedkar's effort led to the expansion of Navayana Buddhism in India.[638][639] The Thai King Mongkut (r. 1851–68), and his son King Chulalongkorn (r. 1868–1910), were responsible for modern reforms of Thai Buddhism.[640] Modern Buddhist movements include Secular Buddhism in many countries, Won Buddhism in Korea, the Dhammakaya movement in Thailand and several Japanese organisations, such as Shinnyo-en, Rissho Kosei Kai or Soka Gakkai. Some of these movements have brought internal disputes and strife within regional Buddhist communities. For example, the Dhammakaya movement in Thailand teaches a "true self" doctrine, which traditional Theravada monks consider as heretically denying the fundamental anatta (not-self) doctrine of Buddhism.[641][642][643] Cultural Influence Main article: Culture of Buddhism A painting by G.B. Hooijer (c. 1916–1919) reconstructing a scene of Borobudur, the largest Buddhist temple in the world. Buddhism has had a profound influence on various cultures, especially in Asia. Buddhist philosophy, Buddhist art, Buddhist architecture, Buddhist cuisine and Buddhist festivals continue to be influential elements of the modern Culture of Asia, especially in East Asia and the Sinosphere as well as in Southeast Asia and the Indosphere. According to Litian Fang, Buddhism has "permeated a wide range of fields, such as politics, ethics, philosophy, literature, art and customs," in these Asian regions.[644] Buddhist teachings influenced the development of modern Hinduism as well as other Asian religions like Taoism and Confucianism. For example, various scholars have argued that key Hindu thinkers such as Adi Shankara and Patanjali, author of the Yoga sutras, were influenced by Buddhist ideas.[645][646] Likewise, Buddhist practices were influential in the early development of Indian Yoga.[647] Buddhist philosophers like Dignaga were very influential in the development of Indian logic and epistemology.[648] Buddhist educational institutions like Nalanda and Vikramashila preserved various disciplines of classical Indian knowledge such as Grammar and Medicine and taught foreign students from China.[649] Frontispiece of the Chinese Diamond Sutra, the oldest known dated printed book in the world In an effort to preserve their sacred scriptures, Buddhist institutions such as temples and monasteries housed schools which educated the populace and promoted writing


nude bikini pics clinton photos chelsea pictures desnuda fotos naked laura porn free porno fan and linda video site lisa kelly playboy topless lolo joan xxx official sex traci ferrari lords eva photo the nue tube pic videos sexy smith ana leah welch lovelace you remini club loren giacomo karen elizabeth carangi fake julia trinity ava kate fenech dana pozzi images gallery edwige moana victoria kristel joanna pornstar foto sylvia rachel pamela principal clips movies lauren shania valerie fabian collins nia rio del robin rhodes hart jane stevens measurements susan taylor jenny sanchez moore lane antonelli lancaume nancy roselyn emily hartley boobs brooke angie kim web demi bonet carrie allen grant hot esther deborah with braga jones fansite yates freeones
lee heather tina inger severance christina louise lopez gina wallpaper nacked ann film nackt fisher carey corinne shue ass vancamp clery model shannon elisabeth panties biografia angelina sofia erin monroe dazza charlene janet doris vanessa anna belinda reguera diane paula fucking scene peeples sonia shauna autopsy monica sharon patricia alicia plato bardot
melissa movie picture cynthia nicole maria star nina julie mary gemser naomi williams torrent nuda barbara twain anderson gia nudes fakes larue pussy actress upskirt san raquel jennifer tits mariah meg sandra big michelle roberts marie lumley tewes clip salma vergara jada cristal day shields cassidy sandrelli penthouse dickinson goldie nud angel brigitte drew fucked amanda shemale olivia website milano ellen ellison vidcaps hayek stone download carmen bessie swimsuit vera zeta locklear shirley anal gray cindy marilyn connie kayla sucking streep cock jensen john tiffani stockings hawn for weaver rue barrymore catherine bellucci rebecca bondage feet applegate jolie sigourney wilkinson nipples juliet revealing teresa magazine kennedy ashley what bio biography agutter wood her jordan hill com jessica pornos blowjob
lesbian nued grace hardcore regera palmer asia theresa leeuw heaton juhi alyssa pinkett rene actriz black vicky jamie ryan gillian massey short shirtless scenes maggie dreyfus lynne mpegs melua george thiessen jean june crawford alex natalie bullock playmate berry andrews maren kleevage quennessen pix hair shelley tiffany gunn galleries from russo dhue lebrock leigh fuck stefania tilton laurie russell vids bessie swimsuit vera zeta shirley locklear anal gray cindy marilyn connie kayla sucking streep cock jensen john tiffani stockings hawn for weaver rue catherine barrymore bellucci rebecca bondage feet applegate jolie george thiessen jean june crawford alex sigourney wilkinson nipples juliet revealing teresa magazine kennedy ashley what bio biography agutter jordan wood her hill com jessica pornos blowjob lesbian nued grace
hardcore regera palmer asia theresa leeuw heaton juhi alyssa pinkett rene actriz black vicky rutherford lohan winslet spungen shawnee swanson newton hannah leslie silverstone did frann wallpapers kidman louis kristy valeria lang fiorentino deanna rita hillary katie granny girls megan tori paris arquette amber sue escort chawla dorothy jessie anthony courtney shot sites kay meryl judy candice desnudo wallace gertz show teen savannah busty schneider glass thong spears young erika aniston stiles capshaw loni imagenes von myspace jena daryl girl hotmail nicola savoy
garr bonnie sexe play adriana donna angelique love actor mitchell unger sellecca adult hairstyles malone teri hayworth lynn harry kara rodriguez films welles peliculas kaprisky uschi blakely halle lindsay miranda jami jamie ryan gillian massey short scenes shirtless maggie dreyfus lynne mpegs melua natalie bullock playmate berry andrews maren kleevage quennessen pix hair shelley tiffany gunn








www.shanagrant.com

Shauna Grant The Last Porn Queen