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Movie Title Year Distributor Notes Rev Formats A Scuola di Lap... le Mamme Insegnano 2008 Vulcan LezOnly Ass Philosofy 2 2008 ATV Anal O Babes With No Limits 4 2006 Pleasure Productions Anal DP DAP DRO Brigitta Fino in Fondo 2006 Pink'O Anal Facial Swallow A2M DO C'era una volta in Jugoslavia 2006 Thema Film Anal Facial DP O Diamanti Sotto il Naso 2008 Vulcan Doppio Piacere 3 2006 Pink'O Anal Facial DP O Escort 2007 Pink'O Anal Facial DO Incesti Italiani 12: Sapore di Madre 2006 Showtime Anal Facial A2M Lussuria in albergo 2007 Mario Salieri Entertainment Group Anal DP DPP Masturbation Lovers XXX 2008 Vulcan MastOnly Pantera Nera 2006 Kamasutra Productions Anal Facial CumSwap O Perverse 2007 ATV Anal DP DPP DO Racconti Anali di Omar 2008 FM Video Segreti Osceni di un Ginecologo 2007 FM Video Anal Facial DP CumSwap Stupri Italiani 16: Violenza Operaia 2006 Showtime Anal Facial Violenza Carnale 2005 Piston Anal Facial Pee and literacy. This led to high levels of literacy among some traditional Buddhist societies such as Burma. According to David Steinberg, "Early British observers claimed that Burma was the most literate state between Suez and Japan, and one British traveler in the early nineteenth century believed that Burmese women had a higher percentage of literacy than British women."[650]
Buddhist institutions were also at the forefront of the adoption of Chinese technologies related to bookmaking, including paper, and block printing which Buddhists sometimes deployed on a large scale. The first surviving example of a printed text is a Buddhist charm, the first full printed book is the Buddhist Diamond Sutra (c. 868) and the first hand colored print is an illustration of Guanyin dated to 947.[651] Buddhists were also influential in the study and practice of traditional forms of Indian medicine. Buddhists spread these traditional approaches to health, sometimes called "Buddhist medicine", throughout East and Southeast Asia, where they remain influential today in regions like Sri Lanka, Burma, Tibet and Thailand.[652] In the Western world, Buddhism has had a strong influence on modern New Age spirituality and other alternative spiritualities. This began with its influence on 20th century Theosophists such as Helena Blavatsky, which were some of the first Westerners to take Buddhism seriously as a spiritual tradition.[653] More recently, Buddhist meditation practices have influenced the development of modern psychology, particularly the practice of Mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) and other similar mindfulness based modalities.[654][655] The influence of Buddhism on psychology can also be seen in certain forms of modern psychoanalysis.[656][657] Buddhism also influenced the modern avant-garde movements during the 1950s and 60s through people like D. T. Suzuki and his influence on figures like Jack Kerouac and Allen Ginsberg.[658] Demographics



See also: Buddhism by country Buddhism is practised by an estimated 488 million,[web 1] 495 million,[659] or 535 million[660] people as of the 2010s, representing 7% to 8% of the world's total population. purple Percentage of Buddhists by country, showing high in Burma to low in United States Percentage of Buddhists by country, according to the Pew Research Center, as of 2010 China is the country with the largest population of Buddhists, approximately 244 million or 18% of its total population.[web 1][note 41] They are mostly followers of Chinese schools of Mahayana, making this the largest body of Buddhist traditions. Mahayana, also practised in broader East Asia, is followed by over half of world Buddhists.[web 1] According to a demographic analysis reported by Peter Harvey (2013):[660] Mahayana has 360 million adherents; Theravada has 150 million adherents; and Vajrayana has 18.2 million adherents. According to Johnson and Grim (2013), Buddhism has grown from a total of 138 million adherents in 1910, of which 137 million were in Asia, to 495 million in 2010, of which 487 million are in Asia.[659] Over 98% of all Buddhists live in the Asia-Pacific and South Asia region.[662] North America had about 3.9 million Buddhists, Europe 1.3 million, while South America, Africa and the Middle East had an estimated combined total of about 1 million Buddhists in 2010.[662] Buddhism is the dominant religion in Bhutan,[663] Myanmar,[663] Cambodia,[663] Tibet,[663] Laos,[663] Mongolia,[663] Sri Lanka[663] and Thailand.[663][664] Large Buddhist populations live in China (18%),[663] Japan (36%),[663] Taiwan (35%),[663] Macau (17%),[663] North Korea (14%),[663] Nepal (11%),[663] Vietnam (10%),[663] Singapore (33%),[663] Hong Kong (15%)[663] and South Korea (23%).[663] In Russia, Buddhists form majority in Tuva (52%) and Kalmykia (53%). Buryatia (20%) and Zabaykalsky Krai (15%) also have significant Buddhist populations.[665] Buddhism is also growing by conversion. In United States, only about a third (32%) of Buddhists in the United States are Asian; a majority (53%) are white. Buddhism in the America is primarily made up of native-born adherents, whites and converts.[666] In New Zealand, about 25–35% of the total Buddhists are converts to Buddhism.[667][668] The 10 countries with the largest Buddhist population densities are:[662] Buddhism by percentage as of 2010[662] Country Estimated Buddhist population Buddhists as % of total population Cambodia 13,690,000 96.9% Thailand 64,420,000 93.2% Burma 38,410,000 80.1% Bhutan 563,000 75% Sri Lanka 14,450,000 69.3% Laos 4,092,000 66% Mongolia 1,520,760 55% Japan 45,820,000 or 84,653,000 36.2% or 67%[669] Singapore 1,725,510 33.2%[670] Taiwan 4,945,600 or 8,000,000 21% or 35%[671] China Chinese folk religion (simplified Chinese: ??????; traditional Chinese: ??????; pinyin: Zhongguó mínjian xìnyang) also known as Shenism, is a polyphyletic term used to describe the diversity of practices in areas generally termed "religion," of persons of Chinese heritage, including the Chinese diaspora. Vivienne Wee described it as "an empty bowl, which can variously be filled with the contents of institutionalized religions such as Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism, the Chinese syncretic religions, or even Christianity (Catholic) and Hinduism."[1] This may include the veneration of forces of nature and ancestors, exorcism of harmful forces, and a belief in the rational order of nature, the universe and reality that can be influenced by human beings and their rulers, as well as spirits and gods.[2] Worship is devoted to a multiplicity of gods and immortals (? shén), who can be deities of phenomena, of human behaviour, or progenitors of lineages. Stories regarding some of these gods are collected into the body of Chinese mythology. By the 11th century (Song period), these practices had been blended with Buddhist ideas of karma (one's own doing) and rebirth, and Taoist teachings about hierarchies of gods, to form the popular religious system which has lasted in many ways until the present day.[3] Contents 1 Diversity 2 Terminology 2.1 Attributes 3 Characteristics 3.1 Diversity and unity 4 History 4.1 Imperial China 4.2 19th–20th century 5 Texts 6 Core concepts of theology and cosmology 6.1 Tian, its li and qi 6.2 Yin and yang—gui and shen 6.3 Hun and po, and zu and xian 6.4 Bao ying and ming yun 6.5 Ling and xianling—holy and numen 7 Sociological typology 7.1 Types of indigenous—ethnic religion 7.1.1 Worship of local and national deities 7.1.2 Lineage religion 7.2 Philosophical and ritual modalities 7.2.1 Wuism and shamanic traditions 7.2.2 Confucianism, Taoism and orders of ritual masters 7.3 Organised folk religious sects 7.3.1 Tiandi teachings 7.3.2 Weixinism 7.4 Geographic and ethnic variations 7.4.1 North and south divides 7.4.2 "Taoised" indigenous religions of ethnic minorities 8 Features 8.1 Theory of hierarchy and divinity 8.1.1 Deities and immortals 8.1.2 Mother goddess worship 8.2 Worship and modalities of religious practice 8.2.1 Sacrifices 8.2.2 Thanksgiving and redeeming 8.2.3 Rites of passage 8.3 Places of worship 8.3.1 Temple networks and gatherings 9 Demographics 9.1 Mainland China and Taiwan 9.1.1 Economy of temples and rituals 9.2 Overseas Chinese 10 See also 10.1 By place 10.2 Other similar national traditions 10.3 Other Sino-Tibetan ethnic religions 10.4 Other non-Sino-Tibetan ethnic religions present in China 10.5 Other articles 11 Notes 12 References 12.1 Citations 12.2 Sources 13 External links Diversity Ancient Chinese religions have a variety of sources, local forms, founder backgrounds, and ritual and philosophical traditions. Despite this diversity, there is a common core that can be summarised as four theological, cosmological, and moral concepts:[4] Tian (?), Heaven, the transcendent source of moral meaning; qi (?), the breath or energy that animates the universe; jingzu (??), the veneration of ancestors; and bao ying (??), moral reciprocity; together with two traditional concepts of fate and meaning:[5] ming yun (??), the personal destiny or burgeoning; and yuan fen (??), "fateful coincidence",[6] good and bad chances and potential relationships.[6] Yin and yang (??) is the polarity that describes the order of the universe,[7] held in balance by the interaction of principles of growth (shen) and principles of waning (gui),[8] with yang ("act") usually preferred over yin ("receptiveness") in common religion.[9] Ling (?), "numen" or "sacred", is the "medium" of the two states and the inchoate order of creation.[9] The present day governments of both China and Taiwan as well as the imperial dynasties of the Ming and Qing tolerated village popular religious cults if they bolstered social stability but suppressed or persecuted those that they feared would undermine it.[10] After the fall of the empire in 1911, governments and elites opposed or attempted to eradicate the ancient Chinese religion in order to promote "modern" values, and many condemned "feudal superstition". These conceptions of the ancient Chinese religion began to change in Taiwan in the late 20th century and in mainland China in the 21st. Many scholars now view folk religion in a positive light.[11] In recent times the ancient Chinese religion is experiencing a revival in both China and Taiwan. Some forms have received official understanding or recognition as a preservation of traditional ancient Chinese culture, such as Mazuism and the Sanyi teaching in Fujian,[12] Huangdi worship,[13] and other forms of local worship, for example the Longwang, Pangu or Caishen worship.[14] Terminology Temple of the City God of Dongmen, in Xiangshan, Ningbo, Zhejiang. A sign with the contents of "This place is a place of ancient belief. No religious donation or religious activities are allowed" . Taken in an ancient Chinese religion temple in Weifang City, Shandong Province Ancient Chinese "popular religion" or "folk religion" or "folk belief" have long been used to indicate the local and communal religious life and complexities of Han local indigenous cults of China in English-language academic literature, though the Chinese language historically has not had a concept or overarching name for this. In Chinese academic literature and common usage "folk religion" (???? mínjian zongjiào) refers to specific organised folk religious sects.[15] "Folk beliefs" (???? mínjian xìnyang) is a technical term with little usage outside the academia,[16] in which it entered into usage at first among Taiwanese scholars from Japanese language during Japan's occupation (1895–1945), and later between the 1990s and the early 21st century among mainland Chinese scholars.[17] With the rise of the study of traditional cults and the creation of a government agency to give legal status to this religion,[18] intellectuals and philosophers in China have proposed the adoption of a formal name in order to solve the terminological problems of confusion with folk religious sects and conceptualise a definite field for research and administration.[19] The terms that have been proposed include "Chinese native religion" or "Chinese indigenous religion" (???? mínsú zongjiào), "Chinese ethnic religion" (???? mínzú zongjiào),[20] or also simply "Chinese religion" (??? Zhonghuájiào) viewed as comparable to the usage of the term "Hinduism" for Indian religion,[21] and "Shenxianism" (??? Shénxianjiào, "religion of deities and immortals"),[22] partly inspired by the term "Shenism" (?? Shénjiào) that was used in the 1950s by the anthropologist Allan J. A. Elliott.[23] The Qing dynasty scholars Yao Wendong and Chen Jialin used the term shenjiao not referring to Shinto as a definite religious system, but to local shin beliefs in Japan.[24] Other definitions that have been used are "folk cults" (???? mínjian chóngbài),"spontaneous religion" (???? zìfa zongjiào), "lived (or living) religion" (???? shenghuó zongjiào), "local religion" (???? dìfang zongjiào), and "diffused religion" (????? fensàn xìng zongjiào).[25] "Shendao" (?? Shéndào, the "Way of the Gods") is a term already used in the Yijing referring to the divine order of nature.[26] Around the time of the spread of Buddhism in the Han period (206 BCE–220 CE), it was used to distinguish the indigenous ancient religion from the imported religion. Ge Hong used it in his Baopuzi as a synonym for Taoism.[27] The term was subsequently adopted in Japan in the 6th century as Shindo, later Shinto, with the same purpose of identification of the Japanese indigenous religion.[28][29] In the 14th century, the Hongwu Emperor (Taizu of the Ming dynasty, 1328–1398) used the term "Shendao" clearly identifying the indigenous cults, which he strengthened and systematised.[30] "Chinese Universism", not in the sense of "universalism", that is a system of universal application, that is Tian in Chinese thought, is a coinage of Jan Jakob Maria de Groot that refers to the metaphysical perspective that lies behind the Chinese religious tradition. De Groot calls Chinese Universism "the ancient metaphysical view that serves as the basis of all classical Chinese thought. ... In Universism, the three components of integrated universe—understood epistemologically, "heaven, earth and man", and understood ontologically, "Taiji (the great beginning, the highest ultimate), yin and yang"—are formed".[31] In 1931 Hu Shih argued that "Two great religions have played tremendously important roles throughout Chinese history. One is Buddhism which came to China probably before the Christian era but which began to exert nation-wide influence only after the third century A.D. The other great religion has had no generic name, but I propose to call it Siniticism. It is the native ancient religion of the Han Chinese people: it dates back to time immemorial, over 10,000 years old, and includes all such later phases of its development as Moism, Confucianism (as a state religion), and all the various stages of the Taoist religion." [32] Attributes Contemporary Chinese scholars have identified what they find to be the essential features of the ancient (or indigenous—ethnic) religion of China. According to Chen Xiaoyi ??? local indigenous religion


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