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By 1433, the Duke of Burgundy had assumed control over most of the lowlands territories in Lower Lotharingia; he created the Burgundian Netherlands which included modern Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, and a part of France. The Catholic kings of Spain took strong measures against Protestantism, which polarised the peoples of present-day Belgium and the Netherlands. The subsequent Dutch revolt led to splitting the Burgundian Netherlands into a Catholic French and Dutch-speaking "Spanish Netherlands" (approximately corresponding to modern Belgium and Luxembourg), and a northern "United Provinces", which spoke Dutch and were predominantly Protestant with a Catholic minority. It became the modern Netherlands. In the Dutch Golden Age, which had its zenith around 1667, there was a flowering of trade, industry, the arts and the sciences. A rich worldwide Dutch empire developed and the Dutch East India Company became one of the earliest and most important of national mercantile companies based on entrepreneurship and trade.
The History of the Netherlands is a history of seafaring people thriving on a lowland river delta on the North Sea in northwestern Europe. Records begin with the four centuries during which the region formed a militarized border zone of the Roman Empire. This came under increasing pressure from Germanic peoples moving westwards. As Roman power collapsed and the Middle Ages began, three dominant Germanic peoples coalesced in the area, Frisians in the north and coastal areas, Low Saxons in the northeast, and the Franks in the south. During the Middle Ages, the descendants of the Carolingian dynasty came to dominate the area and then extended their rule to a large part of Western Europe. The region of the Netherlands therefore became part of Lower Lotharingia within the Frankish Holy Roman Empire. For several centuries, lordships such as Brabant, Holland, Zeeland, Friesland, Guelders and others held a changing patchwork of territories. There was no unified equivalent of the modern Netherlands.

During the eighteenth century, the power, wealth and influence of the Netherlands declined. A series of wars with the more powerful British and French neighbours weakened it. The UK seized the North American colony of New Amsterdam, and renamed it "New York". There was growing unrest and conflict between the Orangists and the Patriots. The French Revolution spilled over after 1789, and a pro-French Batavian Republic was established in 1795–1806. Napoleon made it a satellite state, the Kingdom of Holland (1806–1810), and later simply a French imperial province. After the collapse of Napoleon in 1813–15, an expanded "United Kingdom of the Netherlands" was created with the House of Orange as monarchs, also ruling Belgium and Luxembourg. The King imposed unpopular Protestant reforms on Belgium, which revolted in 1830 and became independent in 1839. After an initially conservative period, following the introduction of the 1848 constitution; the country became a parliamentary democracy with a constitutional monarch. Modern-day Luxembourg became officially independent from the Netherlands in 1839, but a personal union remained until 1890. Since 1890, it is ruled by another branch of the House of Nassau. The Netherlands was neutral during the First World War, but during the Second World War, it was invaded and occupied by Nazi Germany. The Nazis, including many collaborators, rounded up and killed almost all of the country's Jewish population. When the Dutch resistance increased, the Nazis cut off food supplies to much of the country, causing severe starvation in 1944–45. In 1942, the Dutch East Indies were conquered by Japan, but prior to this the Dutch destroyed the oil wells for which Japan was desperate. Indonesia proclaimed its independence from the Netherlands in 1945, followed by Suriname in 1975. The post-war years saw rapid economic recovery (helped by the American Marshall Plan), followed by the introduction of a welfare state during an era of peace and prosperity. The Netherlands formed a new economic alliance with Belgium and Luxembourg, the Benelux, and all three became founding members of the European Union and NATO. In recent decades, the Dutch economy has been closely linked to that of Germany and is highly prosperous. The four countries adopted the Euro on 1 January 2002, along with eight other EU member states. History of the Low Countries Contents 1 Prehistory (before 800 BC) 1.1 Historical changes to the landscape 1.2 Earliest groups of hunter-gatherers (before 5000 BC) 1.3 The arrival of farming (around 5000–4000 BC) 1.4 Funnelbeaker and other cultures (around 4000–3000 BC) 1.5 Corded Ware and Bell Beaker cultures (around 3000–2000 BC) 1.6 Bronze Age (around 2000–800 BC) 2 The pre-Roman period (800 BC – 58 BC) 2.1 Iron Age 2.2 Arrival of Germanic groups 2.3 Celts in the south 2.4 The Nordwestblock theory 3 Roman era (57 BC – 410 AD) 3.1 Native tribes 3.2 Roman settlements in the Netherlands 3.3 Batavian revolt 3.4 Emergence of the Franks 3.5 Disappearance of the Frisii? 4 Early Middle Ages (411–1000) 4.1 Frisians 4.2 Franks 4.3 Modern doubts about the traditional Frisian, Frank and Saxon distinction 4.4 The emergence of the Dutch language 4.5 Christianization 4.6 Frankish dominance and incorporation into the Holy Roman Empire 4.7 Viking raids 5 High and Late Middle Ages (1000–1432) 5.1 Part of the Holy Roman Empire 5.2 Political disunity 5.3 The Frisians 5.4 The rise of Holland 5.5 Expansion and growth 5.6 Hook and Cod Wars 6 Burgundian and Habsburg period (1433–1567) 6.1 Burgundian period 6.2 Habsburg rule from Spain 6.3 The Reformation 6.4 Prelude to war 7 The Eighty Years' War (1568–1648) 8 Golden Age 9 Dutch Empire 9.1 The Dutch in the Americas 9.2 Slave trade 9.3 The Dutch in Asia: The Dutch East India Company 9.4 The Dutch in Africa 10 Dutch Republic: Regents and Stadholders (1649–1784) 10.1 Refugees 10.2 Economic growth 10.3 Amsterdam 10.4 First Stadtholderless Period and the Anglo-Dutch Wars (1650–1674) 10.5 Anglo-Dutch wars 10.6 Franco-Dutch War and Third Anglo-Dutch War (1672–1702) 10.7 Second Stadtholderless Period (1702–1747) 10.8 Economic decline after 1730 10.9 Culture and society 10.10 The Orangist revolution (1747–1751) 10.11 Regency and indolent rule (1752–1779) 10.12 Fourth Anglo-Dutch War (1780–1784) 11 The French-Batavian period (1785–1815) 11.1 Patriot rebellion and its suppression (1785–1795) 11.2 Batavian Republic (1795–1806) 11.3 Kingdom of Holland to William I (1806–1815) 12 United Kingdom of the Netherlands (1815–1839) 12.1 Constitutional monarchy 12.2 Belgium breaks away 13 Democratic and Industrial Development (1840–1900) 13.1 1848 Constitutional reform and liberalism 13.2 Religion and pillarisation 13.3 Flourishing of art, culture and science 14 1900 to 1940 14.1 Colonial focus 14.2 Neutrality during the First World War 14.3 Interwar period 15 The Second World War (1939–1945) 15.1 Nazi invasion and occupation 15.2 Holocaust in the Netherlands 15.3 The war in the Dutch East Indies 15.4 False hopes, the Hunger Winter and Liberation 15.5 Post-war events 16 Prosperity and European Unity (1945–present) 16.1 Baby boom and economic reconstruction 16.2 Flood control 16.3 Europeanisation, Americanisation and internationalisation 16.4 Decolonisation and multiculturalism 16.5 Liberalisation 16.6 Recent politics 16.7 The Netherlands today 17 Historians and historiography 17.1 Historians 17.2 Historiography 18 See also 19 Notes 20 Further reading 20.1 Geography and environment 21 External links Prehistory (before 800 BC) Historical changes to the landscape The prehistory of the area that is now the Netherlands was largely shaped by its constantly shifting, low-lying geography. The Netherlands in 5500 BC The Netherlands in 3850 BC The Netherlands in 2750 BC The Netherlands in 500 BC The Netherlands in AD 50 beach ridges and dunes tidal sand flats, tidal mudflats, salt marshes peat marshes and floodplain silt areas (including old river courses and riverbank breaches which have filled up with silt or peat) Valleys of the major rivers (not covered with peat) River dunes (Pleistocene dunes) open water (sea, lagoons, rivers) Pleistocene landscape (> -6 m compared to NAP) Pleistocene landscape (-6 to 0 m; –20 to 0 ft) Pleistocene landscape (0–10 m; 0–33 ft) Pleistocene landscape (10–20 m; 33–66 ft) Pleistocene landscape (20–50 m; 66–164 ft) Pleistocene landscape (50–100 m; 164–328 ft) Pleistocene landscape (100–200 m; 328–656 ft) Earliest groups of hunter-gatherers (before 5000 BC) An oak figurine found in Willemstad, the Netherlands, dating from around 4500 BC. On display in the Rijksmuseum van Oudheden in Leiden. Height: 12.5 cm (4.9 in). The area that is now the Netherlands was inhabited by early humans at least 37,000 years ago, as attested by flint tools discovered in Woerden in 2010.[1] In 2009 a fragment of a 40,000-year-old Neanderthal skull was found in sand dredged from the North Sea floor off the coast of Zeeland.[2] During the last ice age, the Netherlands had a tundra climate with scarce vegetation and the inhabitants survived as hunter-gatherers. After the end of the ice age, various Paleolithic groups inhabited the area. It is known that around 8000 BC a Mesolithic tribe resided near Burgumer Mar (Friesland). Another group residing elsewhere is known to have made canoes. The oldest recovered canoe in the world is the Pesse canoe.[3][4] According to C14 dating analysis it was constructed somewhere between 8200 BC and 7600 BC.[4] This canoe is exhibited in the Drents Museum in Assen. Autochthonous hunter-gatherers from the Swifterbant culture are attested from around 5600 BC onwards.[5] They are strongly linked to rivers and open water and were related to the southern Scandinavian Ertebølle culture (5300–4000 BC). To the west, the same tribes might have built hunting camps to hunt winter game, including seals. The arrival of farming (around 5000–4000 BC) Agriculture arrived in the Netherlands somewhere around 5000 BC with the Linear Pottery culture, who were probably central European farmers. Agriculture was practiced only on the loess plateau in the very south (southern Limburg), but even there it was not established permanently. Farms did not develop in the rest of the Netherlands. There is also some evidence of small settlements in the rest of the country. These people made the switch to animal husbandry sometime between 4800 BC and 4500 BC. Dutch archaeologist Leendert Louwe Kooijmans wrote, "It is becoming increasingly clear that the agricultural transformation of prehistoric communities was a purely indigenous process that took place very gradually."[5] This transformation took place as early as 4300 BC–4000 BC[6] and featured the introduction of grains in small quantities into a traditional broad-spectrum economy.[7] Funnelbeaker and other cultures (around 4000–3000 BC) Hunebed D27, the largest dolmen in the Netherlands, located near Borger in Drenthe. The Funnelbeaker culture was a farming culture extending from Denmark through northern Germany into the northern Netherlands. In this period of Dutch prehistory, the first notable remains were erected: the dolmens, large stone grave monuments. They are found in Drenthe, and were probably built between 4100 BC and 3200 BC. To the west, the Vlaardingen culture (around 2600 BC), an apparently more primitive culture of hunter-gatherers survived well into the Neolithic period. Corded Ware and Bell Beaker cultures (around 3000–2000 BC) Around 2950 BCE there was a transition from the Funnelbeaker farming culture to the Corded Ware pastoralist culture, a large archeological horizon appearing in western and central Europe, that is associated with the advance of Indo-European languages. This transition was probably caused by developments[clarification needed] in eastern Germany, and it occurred within two generations.[8] The Bell Beaker culture was also present in the Netherlands.[9][10] The Corded Ware and Bell Beaker cultures were not indigenous to the Netherlands but were pan-European in nature, extending across much of northern and central Europe. The first evidence of the use of the wheel dates from this period, about 2400 BC. This culture also experimented with working with copper. Evidence of this, including stone anvils, copper knives, and a copper spearhead, was found on the Veluwe. Copper finds show that there was trade with other areas in Europe, as natural copper is not found in Dutch soil. Bronze Age (around 2000–800 BC) A bronze ceremonial object (not a sword, but called the "Sword of Jutphaas"), dating from 1800 to 1500 BC and found south of Utrecht. The Bronze Age probably started somewhere around 2000 BC and lasted until around 800 BC. The earliest bronze tools have been found in the grave of a Bronze Age individual

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