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The pioneering Dutch cultural historian Johan Huizinga (1872–1945), author of The Autumn of the Middle Ages (1919) (the English translation was called The Waning of the Middle Ages) and Homo Ludens: A Study of the Play Element in Culture (1935), which expanded the field of cultural history and influenced the historical anthropology of younger historians of the French Annales School. He was influenced by art history and advised historians to trace "patterns of culture" by studying "themes, figures, motifs, symbols, styles and sentiments."[218] The "polder model" continues to strongly influence historians as well as Dutch political discussion. The polder model stresses the need for finding consensus; it discourages furious debate and angry dissent in both academia and politics – in contrast to the highly developed, intense debates in Germany.
Movie Title Year Distributor Notes Rev Formats Amours collectives 1976 Avia Films BJOnly Comtesse Ixe 1976 Movie's Couple debutant cherche couple initie 1976 France-Continental The American John Lothrop Motley was the first foreign historian to write a major history of the Dutch Republic. In 3500 pages he crafted a literary masterpiece that was translated into numerous languages; his dramatic story reached a wide audience in the 19th century. Motley relied heavily on Dutch scholarship and immersed himself in the sources. His style no longer attracts readers, and scholars have moved away from his simplistic dichotomies of good versus evil, Dutch versus Spanish, Catholic versus Protestant, freedom versus authoritarianism. His theory of causation over-emphasized ethnicity as an unchanging characteristic, exaggerated the importance of William of Orange, and gave undue importance to the issue religious tolerance.

The H-Net list H-Low-Countries is published free by email and is edited by scholars. Its occasional messages serve an international community with diverse methodological approaches, archival experiences, teaching styles, and intellectual traditions, promotes discussion relevant to the region and to the different national histories in particular, with an emphasis on the Netherlands. H-Low-Countries publishes conference announcements, questions and discussions; reviews of books, journals, and articles; and tables of contents of journals on the history of the Low Countries (in both Dutch and English).[220] After World War II both research-oriented and teaching-oriented historians have been rethinking their interpretive approaches to Dutch history, balancing traditional memories and modern scholarship.[221] In terms of popular history, there has been an effort to ensure greater historical accuracy in museums and historic tourist sites.[222] Once heralded as the leading event of modern Dutch history, the Dutch Revolt lasted from 1568 to 1648, and historians have worked to interpret it for even longer. Cruz (2007) explains the major debates among scholars regarding the Dutch bid for independence from Spanish rule. While agreeing that the intellectual milieus of late 19th and 20th centuries affected historians' interpretations, Cruz argues that writings about the revolt trace changing perceptions of the role played by small countries in the history of Europe. In recent decades grand theory has fallen out of favor among most scholars, who emphasize the particular over the general. Dutch and Belgian historiography since 1945 no longer says the revolt was the culmination of an inevitable process leading to independence and freedom. Instead scholars have put the political and economic details of the towns and provinces under the microscope, while agreeing on the weaknesses of attempts at centralization by the Habsburg rulers. The most influential new studies have been rooted in demographic and economic history, though scholars continue to debate the relationship between economics and politics. The religious dimension has been viewed in terms of mentalities, exposing the minority position of Calvinism, while the international aspects have been studied more seriously by foreign historians than by the Dutch themselves.[223] Pieter Geyl was the leading historian of the Dutch Revolt, and a highly influential professor at the University of London (1919–1935) and at the State University of Utrecht (1936–58). He wrote a six-volume history of the Dutch-speaking peoples.[224] The Nazis imprisoned him in World War II. In his political views, Geyl adopted the views of the 17th-century Dutch Louvestein faction, led by Johan van Oldenbarneveldt (1547–1619) and Johan de Witt (1625–72). It stood for liberty, toleration, and national interests in contrast to the Orange stadholders who sought to promote their own self-interest. According to Geyl, the Dutch Republic reached the peak of its powers during the 17th century. He was also a staunch nationalist and suggested that Flanders could split off from Belgium and join the Netherlands. Later he decried what he called radical nationalism and stressed more the vitality of Western Civilization. Geyl was highly critical of the world history approach of Arnold J. Toynbee.[225] Jan Romein (1893–1962) created a "theoretical history" in an attempt to reestablish the relevance of history to public life in the 1930s at a time of immense political uncertainty and cultural crisis, when Romein thought that history had become too inward-looking and isolated from other disciplines. Romein, a Marxist, wanted history to contribute to social improvement. At the same time, influenced by the successes of theoretical physics and his study of Oswald Spengler, Arnold J. Toynbee, Frederick John Teggart, and others, he spurred on the development of theoretical history in the Netherlands, to the point where it became a subject in its own right at the university level after the war. Romein used the term integral history as a substitute for cultural history and focused his attention on the period around the turn of the century. He concluded that a serious crisis occurred in European civilization in 1900 because of the rise of anti-Semitism, extreme nationalism, discontent with the parliamentary system, depersonalization of the state, and the rejection of positivism. European civilization waned as the result of this crisis which was accompanied by the rise of the United States, the Americanization of the world, and the emergence of Asia. His interpretation is reminiscent of that of his mentor Johan Huizinga and was criticized The economy of the Netherlands is the 17th largest in the world in 2019 (in terms of Gross domestic product; GDP) according to the World Bank and International Monetary Fund. Its GDP per capita was estimated at roughly $48,860 in the fiscal year 2017/18 which makes it one of highest-earning nations in the world (see list of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita). Between 1996 and 2000, annual economic growth (GDP) averaged over 4%, well above the European average of 2.5% at the time. Growth slowed considerably in 2001–05 as part of the global economic slowdown. 2006 and 2007 however showed economic growth of 3-4% per annum. The Dutch economy was hit considerably by the financial crisis of 2007–2008 and the ensuing European sovereign-debt crisis. The Netherlands has had a steady natural gas resources since 1959 when a wellspring was discovered. Today the Netherlands accounts for more than 25% of all natural gas reserves in the European Union. The sale of natural gas generated a significant rise in revenue for the Netherlands for following decades.[21] However, the unforeseen consequences of the country's energy wealth originally impacted the competitiveness of other sectors of the economy, leading to the theory of Dutch disease, after the discovery of the vast Groningen gas field.[21] The Netherlands has a prosperous and open economy, which depends heavily on foreign trade. The economy is noted for stable industrial relations, fairly low unemployment and inflation, a sizable current account surplus (compared to the size of the country even more than Germany) and an important role as a European transportation hub, with Rotterdam as by far the biggest port in Europe and Amsterdam with one of the biggest airports in Europe. Industrial activity is predominantly in food processing, chemicals, petroleum refining, hightech, financial services, creative sector and electrical machinery. A highly mechanised agricultural sector employs no more than 2% of the labour force but provides large surpluses for the food-processing industry and for exports. The Netherlands, along with 11 of its EU partners, began circulating the euro currency on 1 January 2002. The stern financial policy has been abandoned in 2009 because of the current credit crises. The relatively large banking sector was partly nationalised and bailed out through government interventions. The unemployment rate dropped to 5.0% in the summer of 2011, but increased with a sharp rate since then to 7.3% in May 2013, 6.8% in 2015 but dropped again to 3.9% in March 2018.[22][23] The state budget deficit is about 2.2% in 2015 well below the norm of 3.0% in the EU.[24] In 2016 the state budget showed a surplus of 0.4% and this is expected to grow to a surplus of over 1.0% in 2017.[25] Historically, the Dutch introduced and invented the stock market[26] by the merchandise trading through Dutch East India Company. The Netherlands is a founding member of the European Union, the OECD and the World Trade Organization. Contents 1 History 2 Government 2.1 Social security system 2.1.1 Unemployment benefits 2.1.1.1 Coverage 2.1.1.2 Right to benefits 2.1.1.3 Benefits 2.2 Controversial issues 2.2.1 Labour market and social welfare 2.2.2 Age of retirement 2.2.3 Inequality and redistribution 2.2.4 Home mortgage interest deduction 3 Energy sector 3.1 Natural gas 3.2 Nuclear energy 3.3 Tourism 4 Data 5 Largest companies 6 Mergers and acquisitions 7 Covid-19 8 See also 9 Sources 10 External links 11 Further reading 12 References History See also: Economic history of the Netherlands (1500–1815) and Financial history of the Dutch Republic After declaring its independence from the empire of Philip II of Spain in 1581, the Netherlands experienced almost a century of explosive economic growth. A technological revolution in shipbuilding and trade knowledge and capital, due to Protestant traders of Flanders who fled to the Netherlands, helped the young Republic become the dominant trade power by the mid-17th century. In 1670 the Dutch merchant marine totalled 568,000 tons of shipping—about half the European total. The main reasons for this were the dominance of the Amsterdam Entrepot in European trade, and that of the Dutch East India Company (or Vereenigde Oost-Indische Companie – VOC) and West India Companies in intercontinental trade. Unique was that the V.O.C. was the first multinational, while its shares were traded at the Amsterdam stock exchange, one of the first in the world. Beside trade, an early "industrial revolution" (powered by wind, water and peat), land reclamation from the sea, and agricultural revolution, helped the Dutch economy achieve the highest standard of living in Europe (and presumably the world) by the middle of the 17th century. Affluence facilitated what is known as the Dutch Golden Age. This economic boom abruptly came to an end by a combination of political-military upheavals and adverse economic developments around 1670. Still the Netherlands kept a high level of prosperity, due to trade and agriculture. Towards the 1800s, the Netherlands did not industrialize as rapidly as some other countries in Europe. One explanation for this is that the Netherlands were struggling to come to terms with having lost their dominant economical (based mainly on trade and agriculture) and political position in the world. Griffiths argues that government policies made possible a unified Dutch national economy in the 19th century. They included the abolition of internal tariffs and guilds; a unified coinage system; modern methods of tax collection; standardized weights and measures; and the building of many roads, canals, and railroads. As in the rest of Europe, the 19th century saw the gradual transformation of the Netherlands into a modern middle-class industrial society. The number of people employed in agriculture decreased while the country made a heroic effort to revive its stake in the highly competitive industrial and trade business. The Netherlands lagged behind Belgium until the late 19th century in industrialization, then caught up by about 1920. Major industries included textiles and (later) the great Philips industrial conglomerate. Rotterdam became a major shipping and manufacturing center.[27] Poverty slowly declined and begging largely disappeared along with steadily improving working conditions for the population. Since 1959, the Netherlands discovered large natural gas fields. The export of natural gas led to large windfall profits. However, as an unforeseen consequence, these were believed to have led to a decline in the manufacturing sector in the Netherlands.[28] Government While the private sector is the cornerstone of the Dutch economy, governments at different levels have a large part to play. Public spending, excluding social security transfer payments, was at 28% of GDP in 2011.[29] Total tax revenue was 38.7% of GDP in 2010,[30] which was below the EU average.[31] In addition to its own spending, the government plays a significant role through the permit requirements and regulations pertaining to almost every aspect of economic activity. The government combines a rigorous and stable microeconomic policy with wide-ranging structural and regulatory reforms. The government has gradually reduced its role in the economy since the 1980s. Privatisation and deregulation is still continuing. With regards to social and economic policy, the government cooperates with its so called social partners (trade unions and employers' organizations). The three parties come together in the Social-Economic Council (‘Sociaal Economische Raad’), the main platform for social dialogue. Social security system The Dutch social security is very comprehensive, covering Dutch residents in an encompassing manner and is divided into the national security (Volksverzekeringen) and the employee insurance (Werknemersverzekeringen). Whereas the first covers all living in the Netherlands and the social benefits provided, the latter provides employment-related benefits.[32] All living in the Netherlands are required to pay into the social security system, including residents from outside the Netherlands, with a few exceptions.[33] The Volksverzekeringen is compulsory for all and covers the residents under different forms of national insurance:[34][35] Long term care under the Long-Term Care Act (Wet Langdurige Zorg (WLZ)) (formerly known as The Exceptional Medical Expenses Act (Algemen Wet Bijzondere Ziektekosten (AWBZ))) Pension care under the General Old Age Pensions Act (Algemene Ouderdomswet (AOW)) Survivor benefits under the General Surviving Relatives Act (Algemene nabestaandenwet( ANW)) (formerly known as The General Widow's and Orphans’ Act (Algemene Weduwen-en Wezenwet (AWW))) Child benefits under the General Family Allowances Act (Algemene Kinderbijslagwet (AKW)) It is overseen by the Social Insurance Bank (Sociale Verzekeringsbank (SVB)) and financed through earning-related contributions of employers and employees up until a maximum income-ceiling. Whilst employed persons get their contribution deducted automatically from their wage, the unemployed pay by themselves. The AKW is financed by employers, whereas the AOW is financed by the employees. The AOW, additionally, is financed by a small government subsidy. The Werknemersverzekeringen is compulsory for all employed people within the Netherlands. It includes the coverage of employees in the following areas: Unemployment benefits under the Unemployment Insurance Act (Werkloosheidswet (WW)) Sick leave under the Sickness Benefits Act (Ziektewet (ZW)) Disability benefits under the Disablement Insurance Act (Wet werk en inkomen naar arbeidsvermogen (WIA)) The financing for the Werknemersverkeringen is automatically deducted from the employee's income by the employer.[34][35] Unemployment benefits

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