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Movie Title Year Distributor Notes Rev Formats Agony of Lace Lash and Love 1975 Something Weird Video All Night Long 1975 Essex Video / Electric Hollywood DO Cadillac Named Desire 1978 International Home Video Corporation LezOnly O Fantasy in Blue 1975 Special Selection DRO Girls in Passion 1978 Video Home Library NonSex Girls in the Band 1976 Pipeline Video Company O Hardgore 1974 Alpha Blue Archives 1 Hotel Hooker 1975 Gourmet Video Collection DRO In-Flight Service 1975 After Hours Cinema Facial O Invitation 1975 Alpha Blue Archives BJOnly DO Is the Doctor In 1978 TGA Video Anal Clip O Kowloon Connection 1976 VCX Anal DRO Love Games 1975 Select-a-tape Anal D Milk Maid 1975 VCX DRO Most Valuable Pussy 1975 Alpha Blue Archives Anal My Wife the Hooker 1978 Arrow Productions Anal Oriental Kitten 1975 VCX DRO Passions of Carol 1975 Video-X-Pix NonSex 2 DRO Pen Pals 1975 TGA Video O Pleasure Masters 1975 VCA O Satisfaction Guaranteed 1976 TGA Video Anal DO Strange Diary 1975 TGA Video GS Economy Main article: Economy of the Han dynasty Currency
A wuzhu (??) coin issued during the reign of Emperor Wu (r. 141–87 BC), 25.5 mm in diameter The Han dynasty inherited the ban liang coin type from the Qin. In the beginning of the Han, Emperor Gaozu closed the government mint in favor of private minting of coins. This decision was reversed in 186 BC by his widow Grand Empress Dowager Lü Zhi (d. 180 BC), who abolished private minting.[204] In 182 BC, Lü Zhi issued a bronze coin that was much lighter in weight than previous coins. This caused widespread inflation that was not reduced until 175 BC when Emperor Wen allowed private minters to manufacture coins that were precisely 2.6 g (0.09 oz) in weight.[204] In 144 BC Emperor Jing abolished private minting in favor of central-government and commandery-level minting; he also introduced a new coin.[205] Emperor Wu introduced another in 120 BC, but a year later he abandoned the ban liangs entirely in favor of the wuzhu (??) coin, weighing 3.2 g (0.11 oz).[206] The wuzhu became China's standard coin until the Tang dynasty (618–907 AD). Its use was interrupted briefly by several new currencies introduced during Wang Mang's regime until it was reinstated in 40 AD by Emperor Guangwu.[207] Since commandery-issued coins were often of inferior quality and lighter weight, the central government closed commandery mints and monopolized the issue of coinage in 113 BC. This Central government issuance of coinage was overseen by the Superintendent of Waterways and Parks, this duty being transferred to the Minister of Finance during Eastern Han.[208] Taxation and property



Aside from the landowner's land tax paid in a portion of their crop yield, the poll tax and property taxes were paid in coin cash.[209] The annual poll tax rate for adult men and women was 120 coins and 20 coins for minors. Merchants were required to pay a higher rate of 240 coins.[210] The poll tax stimulated a money economy that necessitated the minting of over 28,000,000,000 coins from 118 BC to 5 AD, an average of 220,000,000 coins a year.[211] Left image: Eastern-Han tomb models of towers with dougong brackets supporting balconies, 1st–2nd century AD. Zhang Heng (78–139 AD) described the large imperial park in the suburbs of Chang'an as having tall towers where archers would shoot stringed arrows from the top in order to entertain the Western Han emperors.[212] Right image: A painted ceramic architectural model—found in an Eastern-Han tomb at Jiazuo, Henan province—depicting a fortified manor with towers, a courtyard, verandas, tiled rooftops, dougong support brackets, and a covered bridge extending from the third floor of the main tower to the smaller watchtower.[213] The widespread circulation of coin cash allowed successful merchants to invest money in land, empowering the very social class the government attempted to suppress through heavy commercial and property taxes.[214] Emperor Wu even enacted laws which banned registered merchants from owning land, yet powerful merchants were able to avoid registration and own large tracts of land.[215] The small landowner-cultivators formed the majority of the Han tax base; this revenue was threatened during the latter half of Eastern Han when many peasants fell into debt and were forced to work as farming tenants for wealthy landlords.[216] The Han government enacted reforms in order to keep small landowner-cultivators out of debt and on their own farms. These reforms included reducing taxes, temporary remissions of taxes, granting loans and providing landless peasants temporary lodging and work in agricultural colonies until they could recover from their debts.[217] In 168 BC, the land tax rate was reduced from one-fifteenth of a farming household's crop yield to one-thirtieth,[218] and later to a one-hundredth of a crop yield for the last decades of the dynasty. The consequent loss of government revenue was compensated for by increasing property taxes.[219] The labor tax took the form of conscripted labor for one month per year, which was imposed upon male commoners aged fifteen to fifty-six. This could be avoided in Eastern Han with a commutable tax, since hired labor became more popular.[220] Private manufacture and government monopolies A Han-dynasty iron Ji (halberd) and iron dagger In the early Western Han, a wealthy salt or iron industrialist, whether a semi-autonomous king or wealthy merchant, could boast funds that rivaled the imperial treasury and amass a peasant workforce of over a thousand. This kept many peasants away from their farms and denied the government a significant portion of its land tax revenue.[221] To eliminate the influence of such private entrepreneurs, Emperor Wu nationalized the salt and iron industries in 117 BC and allowed many of the former industrialists to become officials administering the state monopolies.[222] By Eastern Han times, the central government monopolies were repealed in favor of production by commandery and county administrations, as well as private businessmen.[223] Liquor was another profitable private industry nationalized by the central government in 98 BC. However, this was repealed in 81 BC and a property tax rate of two coins for every 0.2 L (0.05 gallons) was levied for those who traded it privately.[224] By 110 BC Emperor Wu also interfered with the profitable trade in grain when he eliminated speculation by selling government-stored grain at a lower price than demanded by merchants.[225] Apart from Emperor Ming's creation of a short-lived Office for Price Adjustment and Stabilization, which was abolished in 68 AD, central-government price control regulations were largely absent during the Eastern Han.[226] Science and technology Main article: Science and technology of the Han dynasty The ruins of a Han-dynasty watchtower made of rammed earth at Dunhuang, Gansu province, the eastern edge of the Silk Road The Han dynasty was a unique period in the development of premodern Chinese science and technology, comparable to the level of scientific and technological growth during the Song dynasty (960–1279).[227] Writing materials In the 1st millennium BC, typical ancient Chinese writing materials were bronzewares, animal bones, and bamboo slips or wooden boards. By the beginning of the Han dynasty, the chief writing materials were clay tablets, silk cloth, hemp paper,[228][229] and rolled scrolls made from bamboo strips sewn together with hempen string; these were passed through drilled holes and secured with clay stamps.[230] The oldest known Chinese piece of hempen paper dates to the 2nd century BC.[231][228] The standard papermaking process was invented by Cai Lun (AD 50–121) in 105.[232] The oldest known surviving piece of paper with writing on it was found in the ruins of a Han watchtower that had been abandoned in AD 110, in Inner Mongolia.[233] Metallurgy and agriculture Evidence suggests that blast furnaces, that convert raw iron ore into pig iron, which can be remelted in a cupola furnace to produce cast iron by means of a cold blast and hot blast, were operational in China by the late Spring and Autumn period (722–481 BC).[234] The bloomery was nonexistent in ancient China; however, the Han-era Chinese produced wrought iron by injecting excess oxygen into a furnace and causing decarburization.[235] Cast iron and pig iron could be converted into wrought iron and steel using a fining process.[236] A pair of Eastern-Han iron scissors The Han dynasty Chinese used bronze and iron to make a range of weapons, culinary tools, carpenters' tools and domestic wares.[237] A significant product of these improved iron-smelting techniques was the manufacture of new agricultural tools. The three-legged iron seed drill, invented by the 2nd century BC, enabled farmers to carefully plant crops in rows instead of casting seeds out by hand.[238] The heavy moldboard iron plow, also invented during the Han dynasty, required only one man to control it, two oxen to pull it. It had three plowshares, a seed box for the drills, a tool which turned down the soil and could sow roughly 45,730 m2 (11.3 acres) of land in a single day.[239] To protect crops from wind and drought, the grain intendant Zhao Guo (??) created the alternating fields system (daitianfa ???) during Emperor Wu's reign. This system switched the positions of furrows and ridges between growing seasons.[240] Once experiments with this system yielded successful results, the government officially sponsored it and encouraged peasants to use it.[240] Han farmers also used the pit field system (aotian ??) for growing crops, which involved heavily fertilized pits that did not require plows or oxen and could be placed on sloping terrain.[241] In southern and small parts of central Han-era China, paddy fields were chiefly used to grow rice, while farmers along the Huai River used transplantation methods of rice production.[242] Structural and geotechnical engineering A stone-carved pillar-gate, or que (?), 6 m (20 ft) in total height, located at the tomb of Gao Yi in Ya'an, Sichuan province, Eastern Han dynasty[243] Further information: Han dynasty tomb architecture Timber was the chief building material during the Han dynasty; it was used to build palace halls, multi-story residential towers and halls and single-story houses.[244] Because wood decays rapidly, the only remaining evidence of Han wooden architecture is a collection of scattered ceramic roof tiles.[245] The oldest surviving wooden halls in China date to the Tang dynasty (AD 618–907).[246] Architectural historian Robert L. Thorp points out the scarcity of Han-era archaeological remains, and claims that often unreliable Han-era literary and artistic sources are used by historians for clues about lost Han architecture.[247] Though Han wooden structures decayed, some Han-dynasty ruins made of brick, stone, and rammed earth remain intact. This includes stone pillar-gates, brick tomb chambers, rammed-earth city walls, rammed-earth and brick beacon towers, rammed-earth sections of the Great Wall, rammed-earth platforms where elevated halls once stood, and two rammed-earth castles in Gansu.[248] The ruins of rammed-earth walls that once surrounded the capitals Chang'an and Luoyang still stand, along with their drainage systems of brick arches, ditches, and ceramic water pipes.[249] Monumental stone pillar-gates, twenty-nine of which survive from the Han period, formed entrances of walled enclosures at shrine and tomb sites.[250] These pillars feature artistic imitations of wooden and ceramic building components such as roof tiles, eaves, and balustrades.[251] The courtyard house is the most common type of home portrayed in Han artwork.[244] Ceramic architectural models of buildings, like houses and towers, were found in Han tombs, perhaps to provide lodging for the dead in the afterlife. These provide valuable clues about lost wooden architecture. The artistic designs found on ceramic roof tiles of tower models are in some cases exact matches to Han roof tiles found at archaeological sites.[252] An Eastern-Han vaulted tomb chamber at Luoyang made of small bricks Over ten Han-era underground tombs have been found, many of them featuring archways, vaulted chambers, and domed roofs.[253] Underground vaults and domes did not require buttress supports since they were held in place by earthen pits.[254] The use of brick vaults and domes in aboveground Han structures is unknown.[254] From Han literary sources, it is known that wooden-trestle beam bridges, arch bridges, simple suspension bridges, and floating pontoon bridges existed in Han China.[255] However, there are only two known references to arch bridges in Han literature,[256] and only a single Han relief sculpture in Sichuan depicts an arch bridge.[257] Underground mine shafts, some reaching depths over 100 metres (330 ft), were created for the extraction of metal ores.[258] Borehole drilling and derricks were used to lift brine to iron pans where it was distilled into salt. The distillation furnaces were heated by natural gas funneled to the surface through bamboo pipelines.[259] These boreholes perhaps reached a depth of 600 m (2000 ft).[260] Mechanical and hydraulic engineering A Han-dynasty pottery model of two men operating a winnowing machine with a crank handle and a tilt hammer used to pound grain. Han-era mechanical engineering comes largely from the choice observational writings of sometimes-disinterested Confucian scholars who generally considered scientific and engineering endeavors to be far beneath them.[261] Professional artisan-engineers (jiang ?) did not leave behind detailed records of their work.[262] Han scholars, who often had little or no expertise in mechanical engineering, sometimes provided insufficient information on the various technologies they described.[263] Nevertheless, some Han literary sources provide crucial information. For example, in 15 BC the philosopher and writer Yang Xiong described the invention of the belt drive for a quilling machine, which was of great importance to early textile manufacturing.[264] The inventions of mechanical engineer and craftsman Ding Huan are mentioned in the Miscellaneous Notes on the Western Capital.[265] Around AD 180, Ding created a manually operated rotary fan used for air conditioning within palace buildings.[266] Ding also used gimbals as pivotal supports for one of his incense burners and invented the world's first known zoetrope lamp.[267] Modern archaeology has led to the discovery of Han artwork portraying inventions which were otherwise absent in Han literary sources. As observed in Han miniature tomb models, but not in literary sources, the crank handle was used to operate the fans of winnowing machines that separated grain from chaff.[268] The odometer cart, invented during Han, measured journey lengths, using mechanical figures banging drums and gongs to indicate each distance traveled.[269] This invention is depicted in Han artwork by the 2nd century, yet detailed written descriptions were not offered until the 3rd century.[270] Modern archaeologists have also unearthed specimens of devices used during the Han dynasty, for example a pair of sliding metal calipers used by craftsmen for making minute measurements. These calipers contain inscriptions of the exact day and year they were manufactured. These tools are not mentioned in any Han literary sources.[271] A modern replica of Zhang Heng's seismometer The waterwheel appeared in Chinese records during the Han. As mentioned by Huan Tan about AD 20, they were used to turn gears that lifted iron trip hammers, and were used in pounding, threshing and polishing grain.[272] However, there is no sufficient evidence for the watermill in China until about the 5th century.[273] The Nanyang Commandery Administrator and mechanical engineer Du Shi (d. 38 AD) created a waterwheel-powered reciprocator that worked the bellows for the smelting of iron.[274] Waterwheels were also used to power chain pumps that lifted water to raised irrigation ditches. The chain pump was first mentioned in China by the philosopher Wang Chong in his 1st-century Balanced Discourse.[275] The armillary sphere, a three-dimensional representation of the movements in the celestial sphere, was invented in Han China by the 1st century BC.[276] Using a water clock, waterwheel and a series of gears, the Court Astronomer Zhang Heng (AD 78–139) was able to mechanically rotate his metal-ringed armillary sphere.[277] To address the problem of slowed timekeeping in the pressure head of the inflow water clock, Zhang was the first in China to install an additional tank between the reservoir and inflow vessel.[278] Zhang also invented a device he termed an "earthquake weathervane" (houfeng didong yi ?????), which the British biochemist, sinologist, and historian Joseph Needham described as "the ancestor of all seismographs".[279] This device was able to detect the exact cardinal or ordinal direction of earthquakes from hundreds of kilometers away.[280] It employed an inverted pendulum that, when disturbed by ground tremors, would trigger a set of gears that dropped a metal ball from one of eight dragon mouths (representing all eight directions) into a metal toad's mouth.[281] The account of this device in the Book of the Later Han describes how, on one occasion, one of the metal balls was triggered without any of the observers feeling a disturbance. Several days later, a messenger arrived bearing news that an earthquake had struck in Longxi Commandery (in modern Gansu Province), the direction the device had indicated, which forced the officials at court to admit the efficacy of Zhang's device.[282] Mathematics A Han-dynasty era mold for making bronze gear wheels (Shanghai Museum) Further information


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